Topic 2 - Sustainable Development

What is development

Development refers to the economic, social, and political processes which result in an improvement of standard of living for a population.

How can countries be classified?

1. Countries may be classified according to their level of development based on a combination of economic and social indicators.

2. Economic indicator: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita

3. Social indicators: Life expectancy and adult literacy rate

What is sustainable development?

1. Sustainable development refers to development that: 

• Meets the needs of the present population by achieving high standards of living for all

• Ensures the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. 

2. Three key aims of sustainable development are economy, environment, and society. 

What may happen to sustainable development if one dimension is over focused?

1. An overfocus on one dimension may lead to other dimensions being overlooked. 

2. For example, if economic growth is prioritised by the government, the environment may be neglected and destroyed, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and deterioration in the quality of the environment for the present and future generations. 

3. Hence it is important for the government to also ensure that their environmental and social dimensions are considered.

Should the approach to sustainable development vary?

1. The approach to sustainable development should vary from place to place and across time. 

2. It does not mean that all three dimensions of sustainability are always balanced. 

3. While all three dimensions should be considered, greater emphasis may need to be placed on one dimension over others at different places. 

What is the United Nations sustainable development goals?

1. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals were introduced to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

2. It is a shared goal that aims to achieve high standards of living and peace for current and future generations. 

How can urban neighbourhoods achieve economic sustainability?

Achieved by ensuring that the neighbourhood has high enough population density, which helps to support local businesses and keep transport and infrastructure costs low.

How can urban neighbourhoods achieve economic sustainability? (supporting local businesses)

1. Local businesses are able to sustain themselves as there will be sufficient demand for their goods and services. 

2. Residents can also take up employment at these shops, earn income and increase their standard of living.

How can urban neighbourhoods achieve economic sustainability? (keeping travel costs low)

1. Transport and infrastructure costs can be kept low within the community.

2. Buildings and objects are usually located close to one another, hence residents need not travel far, keeping their transportation costs low. 

3. When schools are located near integrated transport hubs, students may opt to walk over a short distance to get to school, minimising their transport costs.

4. Transport infrastructure may also be located closer to one another, keeping the cost to develop transport infrastructure low. 

5. This is because connecting infrastructures need not be built or built over long distances, hence transportation costs for residents are lowered. 

6. When a bus or train is located next to the train station, there is no need to build additional infrastructure (e.g roads, bridges) to connect them, lowering the cost of development. 

How can social sustainability be achieved?

1. Achieve by ensuring residents feel included and have a sense of shared identity. 

2. This can be fostered by having shared community spaces to promote regular social interactions.

What is the advantage of a small population size?

1. Residents may come together to discuss issues affecting the neighbourhood and find solutions to various challenges.

2. This helps build resilience and positive relationships within residents, as this helps to maintain a culture of open communication, mutual respect, and understanding, thus reducing misunderstandings and conflicts.

What is the advantage of an adequate neighbourhood structure? Give an example.

1. A majority of the problems faced by local residents are day-to-day mundane issues which can mostly be resolved locally with an adequate neighbourhood structure. 

2. For example, in Singapore, the residents' networks (RN) was set up to promote neighbourliness and community cohesiveness amongst residents. Each neighbourhood is divided into smaller designated zones, and residents are encouraged to join the network. 

3. Regular activities are organized at a designated zonal level to cater to the small population size in the zone.

4. This encourages residents to voice their opinions and participate in decision-making processes regarding issues affecting the neighborhood. 

How can neighbourhoods be sustained environmentally in terms of ample protection for nature?

1. When there is ample protection for nature, wildlife can thrive in our urban spaces and human-wildlife co-existence can be fostered. 

2. Concerted efforts should be made to protect existing native species, habitats and ecosystems, and to re-establish species that once existed.

3. For example, the National Parks Board has developed multiple strategies aimed at safeguarding Singapore's habitats and ecosystems for long-term sustainability. Some of these strategies include the implementation of species conservation and recovery programmes.

How can biodiversity in urban neighbourhoods be maximised?

1. Biodiversity in urban neighbourhoods can be maximised by having a wide variety of habitats, including street trees, pocket parks and roof gardens in the neighbourhoods instead of just having large uniform areas of grass. 

2. The types of plants and trees planted in an area should also be of different varieties and species. 

3. This provides adequate shelter and food for a wider variety of wildlife to choose from. Thus maximising biodiversity in an urban neighbourhood. 

4. For example, the existing 44 nature ways in Singapore connect areas of high biodiversity across Singapore. 

How can neighbourhoods be sustained environmentally in terms of having facilities that support waste minimisation and recycling?

1. Having facilities that support waste minimisation and recycling 

2. Conveniently located recycling facilities and infrastructure, such as blue recycling bins around the estates, can encourage residents to recycle.

3. Having a high enough population density in a neighbourhood ensures adequate waste can be collected and recycled in an economically viable manner.

4. Waste recycling can be encouraged with neighbourhood-scale recycling activities organised by either the residents or the Town Council.

• For example, the Town Council may put up posters or banners to advocate and encourage the residents to recycle properly.

How can neighbourhoods be sustained environmentally in terms of energy and water-efficient design approaches for buildings and landscapes ?

1. Buildings and landscaping in urban neighbourhoods can be designed to be energy and water efficient to minimise the use of resources.

2. Smart technology and eco-friendly features can be installed.

3. For example, under the Large-Scale Housing Development Board Green Sound Programme, cool paint is going to be used in neighbourhoods to lower temperatures by up to 2 degrees Celsius, reducing energy consumption. 

4. Water harvested from rain is used for block washing to avoid its decks and corridors to reduce overall water consumption. 

Why are urban neighbourhoods regarded as ecosystems? 

1. An ecosystem is a geographic area where living communities and non-living environments interact with each other to form a bubble of life. 

2. Ecosystems vary in size. 

3. Every aspect in an ecosystem depends on one another, directly or indirectly. 

4. People are integral parts of ecosystems and dynamic interactions exist between people and other parts of the ecosystem. 

Why do we say that people are integral parts of ecosystems and dynamic interactions exist between people and other parts of the ecosystem?

1. People are integral parts of ecosystems and dynamic interactions exist between people and other parts of the ecosystem. 

2. Activities carried out by people directly and/or indirectly change the ecosystems in both positive and negative ways. 

3. For example, a man-made concrete The re-dredged canal in Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park was transformed into a naturalised river allowing more organisms to thrive in its aquatic ecosystem. 

4. This brought wildlife back into the park, enhancing the neighborhood's biodiversity.

What are ecosystem services?

Ecosystem services refer to the benefits brought about by nature to people. 

These services are produced by the living communities and non-living environment of ecosystems. 

These services are critical to our survival, and their benefits are optimised when we have a healthy and thriving natural environment. 

These ecosystem services consist of:

 1. Provisioning services

 2. Regulating services

 3. Cultural services

 4. Supporting services 

What are provisioning services?

1. Provisioning ecosystem services refer to the tangible resources that people can get from ecosystems, such as food, water, and wood. 

2. Food is one of the most important provisioning services provided by nature to people, and it can be obtained through means such as agriculture activities and fisheries.

3.  It can also be found in the urban neighborhood ecosystem. For example, food is grown in urban community gardens focused on planting edibles on rooftops at Tampines HDB block. 

What are regulating ecosystem services?

1. Regulating ecosystem services refer to the benefits obtained from the regulation of various ecosystem processes, including services such as: climate regulation, disease outbreak regulation, flood regulation. 

2. These ecosystem processes work together to ensure that the ecosystems are functional, clean, sustainable, and resilient to changes. In an urban neighborhood, this includes: Microclimate regulation, flood mitigation, air and water quality control

Give an example of regulating ecosystem services

Regulating services in Bishan Ang Mo Kio Park include:

1. Regulating the local climate. This can lower surface and air temperature by providing shade to residents. On a larger scale, forests can help to cool areas by generating rainfall.

2. Regulating water flows. The vegetation cover in Bishan Ang Mo Kio Park can reduce surface runoff by retaining water in the soil. It is a key service provided by natural land cover 

3. Regulating local air quality. The trees or other plants in the park play an important role in regulating air quality by removing pollutants from the atmosphere. 

What are cultural ecosystem services? 

1. Cultural ecosystem services refer to the intangible benefits we've obtained from ecosystems, including: aesthetics experiences, educational opportunities, and recreational activities

2. In an urban neighborhood, the presence of green spaces can provide many cultural ecosystem services, such as: Aesthetic appreciation, opportunities or stress-relieving activities.

3. These activities may improve people's physical and mental health, foster social belonging and group identity, and thus strengthen their sense of place.

Give an example of cultural ecosystems services?

1. The Bukit Timah Nature Reserve is a site for residents to engage in recreational activities such as hiking

2.  It is also a space which provides educational opportunities, such as when geography students engage in fieldwork

3. Residents may also gain aesthetic experience from natural objects in urban neighborhoods, such as: Heritage trees, skyrise greenery and community gardens 

What are supporting ecosystem services? 

Supporting ecosystem services refer to services that are necessary for the functioning of all other ecosystem services, including: Soil formation, pollination and photosynthesis

What are supporting ecosystem services? (Soil formation)

1. Soil is formed where microorganisms and physical processes decompose organic matter and break them down into smaller particles. 

2. It is essential for the health of all terrestrial ecosystems as it provides a habitat for billions of organisms, contributes to biodiversity, and acts as a water filter. 

3. Soil formation, as a supporting ecosystem service, ensures that human activities such as agriculture can take place.

What are supporting ecosystem services? (Pollination)

In urban neighborhoods, animals like wild bees play a significant role in crop pollination, which is vital as it ensures that crops are able to reproduce to provide food for animals and humans. 

What are supporting ecosystem services? (Photosynthesis)

During photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, and this maintains the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere. This ensures that all other ecosystem services can function. 

What are the hazards?

1. A hazard refers to a process, phenomenon, or human activity that may cause loss of life, other health impacts, property damage, as well as social and economic consequences, and can be classified as natural or man-made.

2. Some examples of natural hazards include earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, while examples of man-made hazards include traffic hazards. 

What are the causes fire hazards?

1. In an urban neighborhood, fire hazards may occur in both residential and non-residential areas. Common causes include: Unattended cooking, faulty electrical appliances and wiring which can ignite nearby flammable materials resulting in a fire. 

2. For example, in 2021, there were a total of 358 cases of fire due to unattended cooking reported in Singapore. 

3. There has also been an increase in fire cases involving personal mobility devices which typically occur in residential areas. 

What are the health impacts of fire hazards?

1. During a fire, people may suffer from burn injuries if they are unable to evacuate in time. Severe burn injuries may lead to disabilities or deaths.

2. High levels of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide may be released during a fire and may cause carbon monoxide poisoning. 

3. This may cause headache, dizziness, weakness, and confusion, and even lead to a loss of consciousness and death. They can make it more difficult for people to escape a fire. 

4. Other irritants from a fire, such as acid gases, can permanently damage a person's respiratory system. 

5. Smoke inhalation may cause breathing difficulties and suffocation, which may lead to death. 

What are the property damage impacts of fire hazards?

1. Fires can destroy commercial or residential properties due to economic losses as goods, furniture, and important documents may be destroyed.

2. Further costs may also be incurred after the fire is over as money is required to repair and rebuild the properties that were damaged in the fire. 

What are the causes of air pollution hazards? 

1. Burning vegetation: Carbon dioxide and other pollutants are released into the atmosphere when vegetation burns, causing air pollution.

2. For example, in the first half of 2019, Singapore saw approximately 555 vegetation fires, a 56% increase in vegetation fires from 2018 due to drier and hotter weather. This resulted in a slight deterioration in air quality.

3. Industrial and motor emissions: increase in car ownership and usage led to an increase in air pollution hazards. 

4. Vehicles produce significant amounts of exhaust emissions such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, and other pollutants.

Why does air pollution occur?

Air pollution occurs due to the presence of contaminating or polluting substances in the air that do not disperse properly and hence interfere with human health welfare or produce other harmful environmental effects.

What are the health impacts of air pollution?

Some of the negative health impacts of air pollution include:

 • Respiratory infections

 • Heart disease

 • Lung cancer

Nitrogen dioxide is emitted in areas of high vehicle traffic. PM2.5 (also known as particulate matter, such as soot, smoke, dust, and liquid droplets measuring less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter) may be produced in urban neighborhoods. 

These pollutants may lead to poor health, high levels of exposure to nitrogen dioxide may lead to higher risk of asthma in children. It may also cause lung function decline in older adults as PM2.5 can enter the bloodstream and lodge deep human lungs. 

What are the causes of traffic hazards? 

1. Common causes include:

2. Speeding

3. Red light running

4. Drink driving

5. These accidents are often caused by irresponsible motorists who put other road users and themselves at risk. 

6. For example, in 2021, there were a total of 969 speeding-related traffic accidents and 153 accidents that were caused by drunk driving.

What are the health impacts of traffic hazards?

1. The health impacts of this are that people may suffer serious injuries when involved in a traffic accident, which may lead to disabilities or loss of life. 

2. For example, in 2021, there were a total of 100 accidents in Singapore that resulted in fatalities. 8 of which were caused by drunk driving. 

3. Elderly pedestrians and motorcyclists typically account for a high percentage of traffic accident victims resulting in injuries or deaths.

What is environmental stewardship? 

1. Environmental stewardship refers to the actions taken by individuals or groups, to protect, care for or responsibly use the environment to pursue environmental and/or social outcomes.

2. It can be practised by individuals, organisations and/or governments.

3. Actions should:

   1. Seek to conserve natural resources

   2. Preserve the existing natural environment. 

   3. Repair the damages and reverse the negative impacts caused by humans to ensure its sustainability.

4. Hence, environmental stewardship can help to build sustainable urban neighbourhoods.

How can environmental stewardship be achieved through promoting volunteerism?

1. Promoting volunteerism among neighbourhood residents to share knowledge with others about the importance of healthy ecosystems. This helps residents become more aware of what they can and should do to responsibly use and protect the natural environment.

2. The National Parks Board (NParks) promotes volunteerism in communities through ground-led initiatives such as Friends of the Parks. Participants may gain greater community ownership and stewardship of parks in their neighbourhoods.

How can environmental stewardship be achieved through partnership involving public and private sectors contributes to environmental stewardship efforts?

1. Different stakeholders may have different perspectives, resources. and expertise to enhance the environmental stewardship efforts. Hence it is crucial for them to come together to steward the environment.

2. Example:

3. Urban neighbourhoods produce large amounts of waste, so it is important that waste materials are recycled.

4. Residents and public and private stakeholders must all play their part in ensuring an efficient and sustainable waste recycling process.

5. A portion of waste disposed of in recycling bins cannot be recycled. Hence, to ensure that recycling is optimised, public agencies like National Environment Agency (NEA) should continue to engage residents on the importance of waste recycling as well as how and what they should recycle.

6. Residents play a vital role in the proper recycling of their waste, public agencies enhance awareness and education, while private stakeholders provide recycling facilities. Through this partnership, environmental stewardship efforts can be enhanced and sustained.

In order for there to be environmental stewardship what must the public and authorities contribute?

1. A portion of waste disposed of in recycling bins cannot be recycled. Hence, to ensure that recycling is optimised, public agencies like National Environment Agency (NEA) should continue to engage residents on the importance of waste recycling as well as how and what they should recycle.

2. Residents play a vital role in the proper recycling of their waste, public agencies enhance awareness and education, while private stakeholders provide recycling facilities. Through this partnership, environmental stewardship efforts can be enhanced and sustained.

What is disaster risk? 

1. Disaster risks refer to the likelihood of damage to properties, injuries, and loss of lives from a disaster in a given period of time.

2. Disaster risks are the product of the interaction between three main factors:

3. Nature of hazard: The characteristics of the hazard.

4. Vulnerability: The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of people and their belongings to the impacts of hazards.

5. Exposure: The situation of people and their belongings located in hazard-prone areas.

6. To determine disaster risks, we cannot consider these factors in isolation. It is the interaction of all the factors that determines disaster risks.

What is disaster risk management?

1. Disaster risk management refers to plans and actions that are implemented to prevent new risks from happening, reduce existing risks and manage disaster risks.

2. This strengthens community resilience.

3. Disaster risk management strategies aim to reduce: 

4. A neighbourhood's exposure to hazards, and

5. the vulnerability of people and properties to hazards.

Give an example of disaster risk management?

Singapore has a comprehensive disaster risk management plan. The main agency responding to disasters is the Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF). Town Councils also have the responsibility to cooperate with other government agencies in securing public safety and preventing disease or injury.

What does Singapore's disaster risk management strategies primarily focus on?

1. Improving residents' emergency preparedness to respond to natural and technological hazards.

2. For example, The SCDF conducts a Community Emergency Preparedness Programme (CEPP), which focuses on key lifesaving skills and important emergency procedures.

3. Implementation of monitoring and warning systems.

4. For example,SCDF has a Public Warning System (PWS) which is a network of sirens placed at strategic points throughout the city. It warns the public of imminent threats that may endanger lives and property such as natural and man-made disasters.

What is community resilience? 

Community resilience refers to the ability of a community to resist, adapt to and recover from impacts of disasters in a timely and efficient manner.

How can community resilience be developed through strengthening relationships among residents and raising their awareness of potential hazards?

1. Disaster risk management plans in neighbourhoods may only be effective and sustainable if there is widespread support and long-term participation from the residents.

2. Residents are encouraged to get to know their neighbours so that they can depend on one another during an emergency.

Give an example on how can community resilience be developed through strengthening relationships among residents and raising their awareness of potential hazards?

1. The People's Association (PA) organises a wide range of community activities aimed at fostering positive relationships amongst residents living in the neighbourhood.

2. Some of the programmes include active ageing, emergency preparedness and community sports - bringing people of different ages and backgrounds together.

3. The community's resilience was evident throughout the COVID-19 pandemic as residents came together to provide assistance to others in need (e.g. mask and food distribution).

4. It is important to note that neighbour relations are highly diverse, varying from one group to another and may also occasionally be problematic.

How can community resilience be developed through developing residents' ability to organise themselves and equip themselves with resources to resist, adapt and recover from a disaster?

1. Residents in the neighbourhood can be involved in an inclusive planning process that involves community leaders, civil society organisations and the government.

2. When residents actively participate in projects to minimise potential hazards in the neighbourhood, they can better understand the risks and adaptation options to communicate to the planners and government.

Give an example on how can community resilience be developed through developing residents' ability to organise themselves and equip themselves with resources to resist, adapt and recover from a disaster?

1. In Singapore, Community First Responders (CRs) volunteers are important in supporting the government in search and rescue operations, relief work as well as educating the public on simple first-aid and basic firefighting.

2. The Community First Responders (Fire) are alerted to minor rubbish chutes and bin fires within their immediate vicinity and help put out the fires. This helps SCDF optimise its emergency resources to attend to life-threatening and other higher-priority cases.

3. For example, The total defence framework is an all-round response to threats and challenges involving everyone in Singapore. It emphasises that everyone has a part to play, individually and collectively, to build a strong, secure, and cohesive nation.