AP Psychology Vocab (all important)

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.

introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.

functionalism

an early school of though promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists agree with (1) but not with (2)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occurred when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communication, and solve problems.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linking with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language.)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of them.

natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

evolutionary persective

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect out behavior and thinking.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, arrirudes, and traits.

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

the study of individuals’ characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

industrial-organization psychology

the application of psychology concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

human factors psycholgy

a field of psychology allied with industrial-organizational psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical encironments can be make safe and easy to use.

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being.

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.p

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy.

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interaction with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

case study

a descriptive technique in which on individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular groups, usually by questioning a representative, random sample, of the group.

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1.00 to +1.00)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a strong-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back towards the average

experimentation

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment of a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evulating studies.

placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence the results.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measure; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to partcipate

debreifing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Included measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleusl the cell’s life support center

dendrites

a neurons often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conduction the impulses towards the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing full-strenth or not firing at all.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

‘morphine within’- a natural opiate- like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitters actions

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled acorns that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.