Studied by 46 people
Critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.
introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.
functionalism
an early school of though promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists agree with (1) but not with (2)
humanistic psychology
a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occurred when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communication, and solve problems.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linking with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language.)
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue
the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of them.
natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
evolutionary persective
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect out behavior and thinking.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, arrirudes, and traits.
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
personality psychology
the study of individuals’ characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
industrial-organization psychology
the application of psychology concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
human factors psycholgy
a field of psychology allied with industrial-organizational psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical encironments can be make safe and easy to use.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being.
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.p
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy.
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interaction with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
case study
a descriptive technique in which on individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular groups, usually by questioning a representative, random sample, of the group.
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (-1.00 to +1.00)
variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a strong-than-actual relationship
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back towards the average
experimentation
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment of a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evulating studies.
placebo
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence the results.
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measure; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to partcipate
debreifing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Included measures of central tendency and measures of variation
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
mode
the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleusl the cell’s life support center
dendrites
a neurons often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conduction the impulses towards the cell body
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
refractory period
in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
all-or-none response
a neuron’s reaction of either firing full-strenth or not firing at all.
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
reuptake
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
‘morphine within’- a natural opiate- like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitters actions
antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
nervous system
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
nerves
bundled acorns that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles.
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
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