Unit 1 Part 1 APPsych Study Set

nature-nurture

• Likely nature & nurture not v.s.

• modern psychologists believe that behavior & mental processes are shaped by the interaction of our genes & environment

evolutionary psychology

• the study of the evolution of our behavior & mental processes, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

• principle that inherited traits that make it easier for an organism to survive or reproduce is more likely to get passed down to future generations compared to other traits

eugenics

• the discriminatory or racist way of using evolutionary ideas

• selectively breeding humans to promote certain characteristics

Heredity

• genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

environment

• every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people & things around us

Heritability

• extent to which variation among individuals in a group can be attributed to their differing genetics

• in %age

• these estimates are about populations only

twin studies

• studies suggest Identical twins raised in the same households would be the most similar

adoption studies

• explores whether adopted children are more like their adoptive or biological parents

what similarities are people that live together likely to share or not share?

• likely to share similar attitudes and values

• less likely to have similar personalities - personalities are not a cause of living together

Epigenetics

• environments (experiences) can trigger or block genetic expression w/out the change of DNA by using molecular mechanisms called Epigenetic marks

neuron

• a nerve cell

• 3 TYPES:

  • sensory, motor, interneurons

• building blocks of nervous system

• throughout life new ones are created and unused ones wither away

glial cells

• 10GL:1N

• support the functioning of neurons

  • transport nutrients, provide myelin insulation, line up neurons closely, clean up neurons’ waste

soma (cell body)

• contains the nucleus & serves as the neuron’s life support center

Dendrites

• receives signals (info) from other cells

• branch extensions of the soma

axon

• tail like extension

• contains the terminal buttons

• where the signals are transmitted to across the soma

• sends neurotransmitters into the synapse for nearby neurons’ dendrites to receive

terminal buttons (synaptic buttons)

• contain chemicals (neurotransmitters) that are necessary to pass on the signal to nearby neurons

Myelin Sheath

• insulator for a neuron’s axon made by glial cells

• increases speed of which a signal travels

• lack of may cause multiple sclerosis (no cure)

• lack of also leads to diminished muscle control and reaction time

neural firing

• 2 STEPS:

  • action potential & neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters

• chemicals that are released into the synapse, possibly stimulating a nearby neuron to fire an action potential

action potential

• brief electrical charge that travels down a neuron’s axon

Resting Potential

• positive outside/negative inside

• neuronal membrane is in a state of readiness

• polarized = positive outside

depolarization

• the process of the cell’s charge becoming positive or less negative

threshold of excitation

• the amount of signals required to initiate an action potential

excitatory neurotransmitters

• increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire

inhibitory neurotransmitters

• decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire

refractory period

• brief moment after firing in which the neuron can’t fire again

all or none phenomenon

• increasing the level of stimulation above the threshold WILL NOT increase the intensity of the neural impulse

lock and key relationship is between what two things?

• a neurotransmitter and a specific receptor that it can bind to

Reuptake

• excess neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed by the axon terminal from which it was released in order to clear the synapse

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Function: enables muscle action, learning, and memory,

• with alzheimer’s disease _____ neurons deterioate

• if _____ transmission is blocked, as w/ the neuromuscular disease myasthenia gravis, muscles cannotcontract

Acetylcholine (ACh)

dopamine

• influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

• oversupply linked to schizophrenia

• undersupply linked to tremors & decreases mobility in Parkinson’s disease

dopamine

serotonin

• affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

• undersupply linked to depression

  • some drugs that raise ______ levels are used to treat depression

serotonin

norepinephrine

• helps control alertness and arousal

• undersupply can depress mood (besides serotonin)

norepinephrine

GABA - gamma-aminobutyric acid

• a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

• undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, & insomnia

glutamate

• a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

• oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures

glutamate

endorphins

• neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

• oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural ______ supply"

endorphins

substance P

• involved in pain perception and immune response

• oversupply can lead to chronic pain

substance P

central nervous system (CNS)

• Brain & Spinal cord

• housed in bone

• info is usually sent to CNS to be processed & acted on

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• not housed in bone

• consist of sensory & motor neurons that connect the CNS to the res of the body

Sensory Neurons

• carry messages from the body’s tissues & sensory receptors inward to the brain & spinal cord for processing

Motor Neurons

• carry instructions from the CNS outward to the body’s muscles and glands

interneurons

• in spinal cord and brain

• process info between the sensory input and the motor output

long term potentiation

• increased efficiency in neural firing which can result from repeated connections between neurons

reflex

• simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

reflex arc

• composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron, often communicating through an interneuron in the spinal cord

somatic nervous system

• carries messages from the senses to the CNS & from the CNS to the muscles

• enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles

automatic nervous system

• controls our internal organ muscles & our glandular activity

• controls activities that are normally outside of conscious control, such as heartbeat, digestion, & perspiration

sympathetic (fight or flight)

• arouses the body & mobilizes energy in the face of stress

parasympathetic (rest or digest)

• calms the body, conserving its energy

endocrine system

• interconnected w/ the NS

• glands are parts of the body that make one or more substances, such as hormones, digestive juices, sweat, tears, or milk

hormones

• travel through bloodstream

• affects tissues

• influences interest in sex, food & aggression

• travel slower than neurotransmitters

• some hormones are chemically identical to neurotransmitters

oxytocin

• promotes social bonding

leptin

• involved in turning off hunger

ghrelin

• involved in turning on hunger

adrenaline

• involved in fight or flight, beneficial in short bursts

melatonin

• helps turn on the sleep process

agonists

• chemicals that increase a neurotransmitter’s action

• may mimic a neurotransmitter (DUPLICATE KEY)

• increase production or release of neurotransmitters and may block reuptake, therefore increasing its effects while neurotransmitters are in the synapse for longer

antagonists

• chemicals that decrease a neurotransmitter’s action by blocking production or release

• FAKE KEY

substance use disorder

• continued use of a substance despite significant life disruptions

symptoms of SUD

• craving the substance

• continued use despite significant life disruptions

• tolerance

• withdrawal

Depressants

• calm neural activity

• slow body functions

Alcohol

• slows brain activity that controls judgement & inhibitions

• reactions slow, speech slurs, performance deteriorates

• disrupts memory formation

Opioids

• very addictive, uncomfortable withdrawals

• includes heroin and methadones ex: fentanyl

• pleasure replaces pain & anxiety, breathing slows, become lethargic

• made worse once the brain stops producing its natural “opioids” aka endorphins

stimulants

• excite neural activity & speed up body functions

• heart and breathing rate increase

• reduces appetite

• ex: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine amphetamines

• used to feel alert, lose weight, boost mood, boost athletic performance

• can be addictive

nicotine

• as powerful and addictive as heroin and cocaine

• develop tolerance & experience withdrawal symptoms if attempting to quit

cocaine

• quick effect

• depletes brain’s supply of the neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine)

• post high is a agitated depressive state

• may lead to emotional disturbances, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, respiratory failure

marijuana

• natural

• alleviates chronic pain & chemotherapy-induced nausea

• likely impairs attention, learning, memory, and maybe academic underachievement

hallucinogens

• psychedelic drug

• distorts perceptions, evokes sensory images in the absence of sensory inputs

possible causes of hallucination

• loss of O

• hallucinogens

• extreme sensory deprivation