1B - Virtue Theory

What is virtue theory?

- An ethical system based on personal qualities
- Shift away from identifying ethical theory as being found in rules and principles, to the hexis (quality, manner, disposition) of a human
- Right/wrong ≠ a matter of rules but of personal character/qualities exhibited in behaviour

Give a quote from Cave about virtue ethics.

• "Morality and personal happiness are entwined"

In which book did Aristotle outline his moral virtues?

• 'The Nicomachean Ethics'

What is eudaimonia?

• Happiness in the sense of being fulfilled

What is the goal of virtue theory?

• Create the good life + achieve eudaimonia through cultivating virtues (virtuous actions)

What did Aristotle call virtues? And hence, what is virtue ethics also known as?

- Arete
* Aretaic ethics

Why is virtue ethics a holistic philosophy?

• It must have a social context with the end result of enabling people to live together

According to Aristotle, what are the three aspects of happiness?

1. A life of enjoyment
2. A life with freedom
3. Being a philosopher (∵ of reflection and contemplation)

Which is the most important virtue that can maintain the three aspects of happiness?

Wisdom (phronesis)
* Such wisdom ≠ easily gained; it is achieved "in a complete life"

How are moral virtues acquired and developed?

Acquired through habit
* Developed through practice

Give three examples of moral virtues.

- Temperance
- Liberality
- Patience

What are intellectual virtues?

• Developed by education

Give three examples of intellectual virtues.

- Insight
- Wisdom
- Peace

What is the difference between justice and virtue?

- Justice = "a relation to one's neighbour"
* Virtue = "a certain state without qualification"

What balance is required to cultivate virtues?

• Excess and deficiency

Why is it difficult to balance virtues?

- Each extreme brings an associated vice
* "it is no easy task to be good. For in everything it is no easy task to find the middle"

What does Aristotle call the balance of virtues?

- The mean

What three types of person does the doctrine of the mean produce.

- Sophron
- Enkrates
- Akrates

What is the sophron?

• Someone who naturally lives in the mean without effort

What is the enkrates?

• Someone who is tempted, but has strong enough willpower to live in the mean

What is the akrates?

• Someone who is weak and cannot live in the mean ∴ they are akrasia (incontinent)

According to many commentators, what are the four key virtues in allowing a character to develop?

- Temperance
- Courage
- Justice
- Wisdom (manages and drives them all)

According to Aristotle, what is the greatest advocate of virtue?

- The philosopher
- They pursue the 'loving' (philos) and the 'wise' (sophos)
- The phrase was first used by Pythagoras to describe himself

What are the excess and deficiency associated vices of patience?

- Excess: Irascibility
- Deficiency: Lack of spirit

What are the excess and deficiency associated vices of friendliness?

- Excess: Obsequiousness
- Deficiency: Cantankerousness

What are the excess and deficiency associated vices of temperance?

- Excess: Licentiousness
- Deficiency: Insensibility

How many virtues are there in total?

• 11/12

Where can the history of encouraging virtues in the Christian tradition be traced back to?

• Ecclesiastes

Which part of the Bible do people traditionally associate Christianity's teachings on rules with?

• The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7)

What does the first section of the Sermon on the Mount begin with?

• Jesus promoting specific virtues

What are the beatitudes?

- Blessings given by Jesus for certain personal virtues
- "Blessed are the/those..."

"Blessed are the poor in spirit...

• "...for theirs is the kingdom of Heaven."
• Interpreted as an understanding of poverty (physical, mental, spiritual) e.g. the oppressed

"Blessed are those who mourn...

• "...for they will be comforted."
• Extends beyond the immediate concern of the loss of a loved one to possessions, status and health State of recognising concern/regret for the current situation of being separated from God

"Blessed are the meek...

• "...for they will inherit the earth."
• Psalm 37:11: "The meek will possess the land"
• Not a weakness, but more a description of discipline/exhibiting self-control towards others

"Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness...

• "...for they will be filled."
• Desire for virtuous outcome of justice in a personal, spiritual, social, global sense"

"Blessed are the merciful...

• "...for they will be shown mercy."
• Through humility/awareness of God's character, Christians = encouraged to display mercy to others ∵ it is a virtuous disposition in itself, not ∵ it brings reward of God's mercy

"Blessed are the pure in heart...

• "...for they will see God."
• Sincerity of character that wills/determines correct choices w/o contamination of selfish drives

"Blessed are the peacemakers...

• "...for they will be called the children of God."
• Traditionally ascribed to the role of Messiah; those who follow suit + work for peace appreciate the nature of Kingdom of God

"Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness...

• "...for theirs is the Kingdom of Heaven."
• Willingness to suffer for religious + moral principles but display underlying determination to survive and stand up for what is right despite obstacles

Why are the virtues a subject of theological debate?

• Echoes of Isiah 61:1-3: refers to freedom from poverty, heartbreak, imprisonment, mourning + declaring hope for the righteous who are in despair, and comfort those who mourn
• Antithesis of Proverbs 6:16-19, which describes the unrighteous character

Give the challenge that virtue theory does not fall conveniently within deontological or teleological categories due to its focus on the characteristics of a person.

• Links with Aristotle + Aquinas have caused some to question whether or not it is a form of Natural Law ∴ deontological in essence
• Others see it as teleological ∵ of its focus on achieving eudaimonia

Give the challenge that the virtues are not a practical guide to moral behaviour.

• They are arbitrary, subjective, vague, imprecise ∴ lacks a focus on real behaviour in relation to real-life situations; more guidance = required if it is to be effective as a moral system
• Too much dependence on potential goodness of others; unconditional trust that allows for no overall control or individual quality control - what is correct?
• Too individualistic as it deals primarily w/ the individual ∴ not practical for society
• Too complex for many to apply; Aristotle recognised that not everyone has the same ability when resisting vice ∴ maybe only relevant for the philosopher

Explain the challenge of cultural relativism and the use of virtues for immoral acts.

• Do virtues really exist? Various instances in history where one society's virtue = another's vice
- e.g. courage could be seen as passively putting up with injustice/persecution, or actively participating in challenging tyranny (warriors = praised for courage)
• As a system, it can be contradictory: if there are differences in expressing a virtue, then which is the right one?
• Self-centred ethic means that the action a moral agent performs does not consider the consequences for others

Explain the response that virtue ethics is an attractive/alternative way to pursue ethical standards.

• Although virtues are self-focused, the theory develops a character that responds best to others and builds an ideal community∴ strong social context for virtue theory, makes it a practical system
• Focuses on the way we behave, not simply what we should believe to be the case

Explain the response that the virtuous person is an exemplar of good character.

• Virtue theory has clear, guiding principles
• Such exemplars (philosophers) serve as good role models (however, Hitler saw himself as a "philosopher-leader")
• Aristotle argued that wisdom in application of justice for society ensures that is works and it is not subjective

Why could virtue theory apply to feminist thinkers?

• It provides an alternative to rules/duties stereotypically shown as a male way of approaching life
• Most systems in place have been devised by men, for men