theories of development

What does Piaget's theory of cognitive development mainly focus on?

Focuses on how individuals acquire, construct,

and use knowledge across life stages.

What does Piaget's theory suggest about how children learn?

Suggests that children actively construct

understanding through interaction with their

environment.

According to Piaget's theory, cognitive development unfolds in , each with distinct ways of thinking

Universal stages

Description of the sensorimotor stage

Learning through senses and physical movement. Begins to understand object permanence (things exist even when unseen).

When is the sensorimotor stage?

0-2 years

Description of the preoperational stage

Symbolic thinking (pretend play, drawing). Thinking is egocentric and intuitive, not yet logical.

When is the preoperational stage?

2-7 years

Description of the concrete operational stage

Logical thinking about concrete things (e.g., maths,

cause and effect). Understands conservation, reversibility.

When is the concrete operational stage?

7-11 years

Description of the formal operational stage

Abstract thinking, hypotheticals, ethical reasoning.

Develops metacognition (thinking about thinking).

Strengths of Piaget's theory

Recognised that children think differently from adults. Provided a foundation for child-centred learning and therapy. Encouraged active learning and exploration in education and play-based counselling

Weaknesses of Piaget's theory

Not always universal. May underestimate childrens' capabilities. Focuses on the individual.

How is Piaget's theory relevant to counselling?

• Helps assess a client's stage of thinking (e.g.,

concrete vs abstract reasoning).

• Informs how we explain things, frame meaning, or

adapt interventions.

• Offers insight into a client's perspective-taking

abilities (especially in young people).

• Encourages us to stay aware of cultural bias and

approach development with humility

Description of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development

• Culture, language, and relationships shape how we think, learn, and make meaning.

• Children learn through interactions with others, especially more knowledgeable others (e.g.,

caregivers, teachers, peers).

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance.

Scaffolding

The temporary support given to help someone learn a new skill or idea, gradually removed as they

become more independent.

Private and inner speech

Children talk to themselves to guide behaviour; over time, this becomes internal thinking.

Cultural tools

Language, stories, customs, and symbols used to transmit knowledge and meaning in a cultural

context

Strengths of Vygotsky's theory

• Highlights role of relationships and social context

• Culturally responsive and flexible

• Supports strength-based practice

• Aligns with counselling approaches (counsellors act as scaffolds)

Weaknesses of Vygotsky's theory

• Lacks detailed stages/milestones (harder to assess where someone is "at")

• Harder to measure scientifically (abstract)

• Relational focus not applicable to all contexts (assumes access to supportive relationships)

• Not fully developed before his death (RIP king)

Description of Erikson's psychosocial development theory

• Personality develops in stages across the entire lifespan.

• Each stage involves a psychosocial conflict—a challenge between individual needs and social expectations.

• Successful resolution of each stage leads to healthy identity and development.

• Unresolved stages can create emotional or relational difficulties later in life.

Erikson's first stage

Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year)

Erikson's second stage

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years)

Erikson's third stage

Initiative vs. Guilt

(3 to 5 years)

Erikson's fourth stage

Industry vs. Inferiority

(6 to 11 years)

Erikson's fifth stage

Identity vs role confusion (12-18)

Erikson's sixth stage

Intimacy vs. Isolation (19-40 years)

Erikson's seventh stage

Generativity Vs Stagnation (40-65 years)

Erikson's eighth stage

Ego Integrity vs. Despair

(65 to death)

Core question of trust vs. mistrust

Can I trust the people around me?

Core question of autonomy vs. shame & doubt

Can I do things on my own?

Core question of initiative vs. guilt

Is it okay for me to explore, take initiative, and act?

Core question of industry vs. inferiority

Can I succeed and be competent in the world?

Core question of identity vs. role confusion

Who am I, and where do I belong?

Core question of intimacy vs. isolation

Can I form deep, meaningful relationships without losing

myself?

Core question of generativity vs. stagnation

Am I contributing something meaningful to others or the

world?

Core question of integrity vs. despair

Did I live a meaningful life?

Strengths of Erikson's theory

Lifespan perspective, focus on social and emotional development, widely used in counselling

Weaknesses of Erikson's theory

Cultural bias, stage timing may vary, assumes linear progression

Description of Bowlby & AInsworth's attachment theory

Suggests we develop internal working models of relationships based on how caregivers respond to our needs. These patterns often carry into adult relationships and emotional regulation.

Secure base

A caregiver who is consistently responsive and safe allows a child to explore the world confidently, knowing they can return for comfort. In adulthood, this becomes a secure sense of self and trust in others.

Internal working models

Mental frameworks formed from early experiences that guide

expectations of self and others in relationships.

Attachment behaviours

Proximity-seeking, clinging, separation protest—behaviours

aimed at maintaining closeness with a caregiver or

attachment figure.

Emotion regulation

Early attachment experiences shape how we cope with stress,

soothe ourselves, and trust co-regulation from others

Secure child behaviour

Explores freely, seeks

comfort when distressed

Secure adult behaviour

Healthy boundaries, trusts others,

seeks support

Avoidant child behaviour

Avoids closeness, appears

emotionally distant

Avoidant adult behaviour

Struggles with intimacy, values

independence

Anxious child behaviour

Clingy, anxious, hard to

soothe

Anxious adult behaviour

Preoccupied with closeness, fears

abandonment

Disorganised child behaviour

Freezing, fear, erratic

responses

Disorganised adult behaviour

Trauma-related patterns, often

unstable in relationships

Attachment theory strengths

Explains relational patterns across lifespan, grounded in observation and research, widely used in counselling, supports whānau-centred approaches

Attachment theory weaknesses

Western bias in attachment norms, over-focus on mother-child dyad, may pathologise survival responses