unit 4 aphg

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apartheid

South Africa's legal system (1948-1994) of institutionalized racial segregation, separating different races (white, black, colored, Indian) into distinct geographic areas, dictating residence, education, and opportunities to maintain white minority rule and suppress non-white rights

balkanization

the contentious political process where a state or region breaks apart into smaller, often hostile, independent states or units, usually along ethnic, cultural, or religious lines, creating instability and conflict, exemplified by the breakup of Yugoslavia

barrio

a Spanish term for a neighborhood, often an urban district in a U.S. city with a significant Spanish-speaking population, serving as a center for cultural identity, community, and unique social networks

centripetal force

any factor that unifies a state, binding people together, fostering nationalism, and promoting social cohesion, stability, and support for the government

centrifugal force

any factor that divides a country, pulling people and regions apart by weakening unity and creating conflict

civic nationalism

a nation by shared political values, citizenship, and institutions (like democracy, rule of law) rather than ethnicity or culture

ethnicity

a shared cultural identity with a group of people who have common traditions, language, religion, ancestry, or a connection to a specific homeland/hearth, emphasizing cultural bonds over physical traits (race) or legal citizenship (nationality)

ethnic cleansing

the process by which a more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one from a given territory to create an ethnically homogeneous region

ghetto

a segregated urban area where a minority ethnic or racial group is concentrated due to social, economic, or political pressures, often leading to poverty, limited services, and marginalization

multi-ethnic state

a country with more than one ethnic group, each with its own distinct cultural identity, language, and history

nationalism

a powerful ideology where people feel united by a shared identity (culture, language, history, ethnicity) and place primary loyalty to their nation, driving for self-governance or unity, but can also fuel conflict when it promotes superiority or clashes with other groups

nationality

your legal membership and allegiance to a specific country (a political entity) through citizenship, rights, and duties, distinct from ethnicity (shared culture/ancestry) or race (perceived physical traits)

nation-state

sovereign political entity (a state) where the political boundaries closely align with the cultural boundaries of a specific people (a nation)

nationless state

a large group of people (a nation) who share a common culture, language, or ethnicity but lack their own independent, sovereign country, often living as minorities within larger states, like the Kurds or Palestinians, and sometimes seeking self-determination

part nation/quasi state

an entity that possesses some, but not all, of the qualifications of a state (a defined boundary, permanent population, government, and sovereignty)

race

a social construct categorizing people by perceived physical differences (skin color, hair, features) that are given social meaning, often linked to ancestry, influencing power, status, and segregation, rather than being a strict biological reality

self-determination

the core principle that an ethnicity or group of people has the right to govern themselves, choose their own political status, and pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development, often leading to demands for independence, nation-state formation, or autonomy within existing states, as seen in post-colonial movements

african union

supranational organization that is promoting unity, economic development, and political stability across Africa through cooperation on issues like conflict resolution, trade, and governance, often challenging traditional state sovereignty for collective goals like peacekeeping or health initiatives

asean

Association of Southeast Asian Nations, a key supranational organization promoting economic, political, and cultural cooperation among 10 Southeast Asian countries (like Singapore, Vietnam, Philippines, etc)

autonomous region

a defined area within a country granted significant self-governance, allowing it to manage its own affairs (like education, culture, or local laws) with considerable independence from the central government, often due to unique ethnic, cultural, or historical identities, balancing national unity with minority demands

berlin conference

the meeting of 14 European powers that formalized the "Scramble for Africa," establishing rules for colonization, carving up the continent into spheres of influence without African consent, and creating arbitrary borders that fueled future ethnic conflicts, hindering African unity and development, all key concepts in understanding imperialism, colonialism, and political geography

border/boundary

a recognized line (visible or invisible) that marks the limits of a political entity, separating territories and defining jurisdiction for governance, sovereignty, and control

capital city

the seat of government for a country or region, housing political power, government buildings (like legislatures/parliaments), and administrative functions, often serving as a symbolic center for national identity, though not always the largest city

centripetal force

factors that bind a country together, fostering unity (like shared culture, language, or nationalism)

centrifugal force

factors that tear a country apart (like ethnic conflict, religious differences, or uneven development)

city-state

a sovereign, independent state consisting of a single large city and its surrounding territory, with its own government, laws, and economic system, acting as the political, economic, and cultural hub for its region

colonialism

the practice of a powerful country establishing control, settlements, and economic exploitation over a foreign territory, often moving its own people in to dominate the indigenous population for resources and power, leading to massive diffusion of language, culture, religion, new political boundaries, and long-term conflicts

colony

a territory legally tied to a sovereign state, established by settlers from that state, and often exploited for resources, labor, and political power, involving the imposition of the colonizer's culture, economy, and governance, leading to significant demographic shifts and cultural diffusion

compact state

a country with a roughly circular or square shape where the distance from the center to any boundary is relatively uniform, making it efficient for governance, defense, and resource distribution, with capitals often centrally located for control

confederation

a political system where independent, sovereign states form a loose alliance for shared goals (like defense or trade) but keep most of their power, with a weak central government that relies on member states for authority, contrasting with stronger federal systems

democratization

the transition of a country from an authoritarian or non-democratic system to a democratic one

devolution

the transfer of political power and authority from a central government to subnational (regional/local) governments, making the central state weaker and regions stronger, often driven by ethnic, linguistic, economic, or physical geography factors (like mountains or islands) that create distinct identities or isolation

elongated state

a country with a long, narrow shape, significantly longer in one dimension than its width

eez

Exclusive Economic Zone, a maritime area extending up to 200 nautical miles from a country's coast where that nation has exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage marine resources (like fish, oil, gas, minerals) and other economic activities, as defined by the UN's Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

enclave

a territory completely surrounded by another single territory (like Vatican City in Rome)

exclave

a part of a state geographically separated from the main part (like Alaska from the U.S.)

european union

a political and economic union of 27 European nations working together for peace, stability, and prosperity through integrated policies on trade (single market), movement (Schengen Area), currency (Euro), and shared goals like human rights and environmental standards, balancing national sovereignty with collective action

fragmented state

a country with noncontiguous, separated land areas, often due to water (like Indonesia, Philippines) or other countries

forward capitals

a new capital city intentionally built or relocated to a country's interior or less-developed region, often for strategic, economic, or symbolic reasons, to encourage national unity, development, resource distribution, or to integrate outlying areas

federalism

a political system where power is divided and shared between a central (national) government and regional (state/provincial) governments

frontier

a geographic zone where no single state exercises full political control, acting as a shifting, often contested area where different cultures and nations meet, contrasting with a precise boundary line

high seas

the vast ocean areas beyond any country's national jurisdiction, starting typically 200 nautical miles from shore (beyond Territorial Waters and Exclusive Economic Zones)

gerrymander

the political practice of drawing voting district boundaries to favor one party or group, manipulating election outcomes by concentrating or diluting opposing voters (packing/cracking)

imperialism

a policy where a powerful country extends its control (political, economic, or cultural) over other territories or peoples, often through military force, economic dominance (like securing resources/markets), or imposing culture, distinct from colonialism (which involves settlement and direct rule)

irredentism

a nationalist movement or policy where a state seeks to reclaim or annex territory from a neighboring country because its people share the same ethnicity, history, or culture, aiming to "redeem" or unite these "unredeemed" lands with the mother country, often causing boundary disputes and conflict

landlocked state

a country completely surrounded by other countries, lacking direct access to the sea or ocean

microstate

a sovereign country that is very small in both land area and population

multinational state

a country containing two or more distinct cultural groups (nations or nationalities) with their own unique identities, languages, or histories, coexisting under a single government

nafta

a 1994 treaty between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico that eliminated most tariffs, creating a massive free-trade bloc to boost economic integration, trade, and investment, but also sparked debates over job shifts (outsourcing) and environmental/labor standards, later replaced by the USMCA

nation

a large group of people sharing common cultural traits (language, ethnicity, history, traditions) who often feel a collective identity and attachment to a specific homeland, even if they lack their own independent state (country)

nato

(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is a key example of a supranational organization and military alliance

perforated state

a country that completely surrounds another country (an enclave)

prorupted state

a country with a long, narrow extension or "panhandle" jutting out from its main territory, often created to gain access to a resource (like water) or a strategic area, or to separate two other states, with examples like Thailand (Kra Isthmus) or Namibia

sovereignty

the fundamental principle that a state (country) has supreme, independent authority to govern its own territory, people, and internal/external affairs without outside interference

soviet union

a vast, communist, one-party socialist state crucial for understanding political geography, centrifugal/centripetal forces, devolution, states & boundaries, and development patterns

state

a politically organized territory with a permanent population, defined boundaries, an established government that exercises sovereignty (supreme authority) over its internal and external affairs, and the capacity to interact with other states

stateless nation

a large ethnic/cultural group (a "nation") that shares a common identity but lacks its own independent, sovereign state, often living as a minority within other countries or spread across multiple states

territorial waters

the maritime zone extending up to 12 nautical miles (about 13.8 statute miles) from a country's coastline, where that state exercises complete sovereignty, controlling resources, airspace, seabed, and enforcing laws, though foreign vessels are granted "innocent passage"

terrorism

the unlawful use of violence or threats by non-state groups, targeting civilians or non-combatants to create widespread fear (terror) for specific political, social, or ideological goals, aiming to coerce governments or influence a broader audience, often involving transnational aspects and challenging state power

unitary state

a country where the central government holds supreme authority, making most key decisions and controlling all levels of government, with local units only exercising powers delegated by the center, leading to uniform laws but less local autonomy

supranational organization

an alliance of three or more states that pool sovereignty to achieve shared goals, creating governing bodies that can make binding decisions for member nations, influencing economic (like the EU's single market) or political (like the UN's peacekeeping) policies, and increasing collective power beyond individual states' capabilities

unclos

(United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) is a key international treaty defining maritime boundaries, granting coastal states rights to their territorial waters (12 nautical miles) and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs, 200 nautical miles) for resources, while balancing navigation rights and protecting the marine environment, establishing rules for ocean use, resources, and boundaries

united nations

a supranational organization founded in 1945 to promote international peace, security, economic cooperation, and human rights