Psychology 101 Final Exam UAB prof. Dobias

Psychology

the scientific study of mental activity and behavior, which are based on brain processes.

Goals of Psychology

Describe what a particular phenomenon is, predict when it will occur, control what causes it to occur, explain why it occurs.

Structuralism

an approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components

Functionalism

An early school of thought concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior. (how mental processes enabled us to adapt to the environment)

Experimental Research

An early school of thought concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior.

Correlational Research

Research methods that examine how variables are naturally related in the real world. The researcher makes no attempt to alter the variables or assign causation between them

independent variable

an experiment, the variable that the experimenter manipulates to examine its impact on the dependent variable

Dependent Variable

an experiment, the variable that is measured to determine how it was affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

Reliability

the consistency and repeatability of the test

Validity

how well the test measures what it intends to measure

Neural Communication

Transmission phase, reception phase, integration phase

Transmission Phase

Neural communication begins when there is enough stimulation in the presynaptic neuron to create an action potential. The action potential travels quickly down the axon to the terminal buttons. The action potential causes chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released from the terminal buttons at the end of the axon.

Reception Phase

the neurotransmitters cross the synapse and fit into receptors in the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron.

Integration Phase

Each neurotransmitter has either excitatory or inhibitory effects on the postsynaptic neuron. These effects are summed together in the cell body. If there is enough activation, it will lead to another action potential. At that point, the process begins again with Phase 1 in neuron.

Synapse

The space between neurons where communication takes place through neurotransmitter.

Action Potential

The neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse

Myelin Sheath/Myelination of Neurons

a fatty material that covers and insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon

Corpus Callosum

The fibrous structure that connects and lets information flow between the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.

Nature

inherited; you were born with it

Nurture

it was taught to you

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget described how children's thinking abilities are characterized across four stages of cognitive development

Sensorimotor (Birth-2 years)

Starts to mentally represent information acquired through the senses and motor exploration.

Begins to act intentionally- for example, pulls a string to set a mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise

Achieves object permanence by realizing that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the senses

Preoperational (2-7 years)

Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words.

Thinking is egocentric, where the child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others

Can think intuitively, not logically.

Classifies objects by single feature-for example, groups blocks by color regardless of their shape

Concrete operational (7-12 years)

Can think logically about concrete objects and events

Achieves conservation of number, volume, mass, and weight.

Can think intuitively, not logically.

Classifies objects by a single features and can order them in a series along a single dimension, such as size.

Formal Operational (12 years and up)

Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically

Becomes concerned with hypothetical issues, the future, and idealogical problems

Strange-Situation Test

This test is a method of exploring the attachment style of infants or young children. Attachment style is based on how infants respond when caregivers leave them with strangers, and how infants respond when caregivers return.

Secure Attachment

Upset when they leave, happy when they return

Avoidant Attachment

No reaction when they leave, no response when they return

Ambivalent Attachment

Upset when they leave, upset when they return

Disorganized Attachment

responses are inconsistent

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning

Preconventional Level, Conventional Level, Postconventional Level

Preconvetional Level

Morality is determined by the personal consequences for the actor

Should choose behavior the will result in punishment

Convetional Level

Morality is determined by how the action conforms to social rules

Should choose behavior that upholds the generally accepted laws/norms of the culture

Postconventional Level

Morality is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values

Should choose the behavior that upholds these principles

Sensation

the sense organs' detection of external physical stimulus and the transmission about this stimulus to the brain

Transduction

For every sensory system (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell) the process begins with conversion of a physical stimulus into a signal that can be sent to the brain

Perception

the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals in the brain; these processes result in an internal neural representation of the physical stimulus.

How we experience and interpret the information that we detect

Absolute Thresholds

the smallest amount of physical stimulation required to detect a sensory input half of the time is present

Iris

a circular muscle, gives eyes their color and controls the pupil's size to determine how much light enters the eye.

In dim lightening, the iris allows the opening of the pupil to become larger to let more light to the eye

Fovea

the center of the field of vision, where you have the harper vision. Cones are densely packed here

Optic Disc

where axons come together to exit the eye on the way to the brain. No photoreceptors here, this is a large blind spot in your visual field

Retina

The thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball; this surface contains the sensory receptors

Photoreceptors

cells in the retina that respond to light (Rods and Cones)

Rods

Sensory receptors in the retina that detect light waves and transduce them into signals that are processed in the brain as vision. Respond best to low levels of illumination, and therefore they do not support color vision or seeing fine detail.

Cones

Sensory receptors in the retina that detect light waves and transduce them into signals that are processed in the brain as vision. Respond best higher levels of illumination, and therefore they are responsible for seeing color and fine detail

Binocular Cues

information about distance that requires use of both eyes

Monocular Depth Cues

depth cues that do not require use of both eyes

Occlusion

a near object (woman's head) blocks an object that is father away (the building)

Height in Field

objects that are lower in the visual field (woman) are seen as nearer than objects that are higher in the visual field (man on the sidewalk)

Relative Size

Objects that are farther away (man on the sidewalk) project a smaller retinal image than close objects of a similar size (lman on the street next to b).

Familiar Size

we know how large familiar objects are (car), so we can estimate how far away they are by the size of their retinal images.

Linear Prospective

seemingly parallel lines (sidewalk) appear to converge in the distance

Texture Gradient

as a uniformly textured surface recedes, its texture continuously becomes denser (pattern on the pavement)

Gestalt Grouping Principles

Gestalt psychology describes several principles of grouping that explain how we perceive features of the visual field as unified, whole object.

Proximity

Close figures are grouped as an object. So we see these 16 dots as three groups of objects

Similarity

Similar figures are grouped in an object. So we see this rectangle as having two locked pieces.

Continuity

intersecting lines are interpreted as continuous. So we see the green bar as one piece that continues behind the purple cylinder

Closure

Figures with gaps are interpreted as complete. So we see the figure as one whole triangle

Illusory Contours

Contours are perceived even when they do not exist. So we see the contours of a square here

Groups

The visual system's organization of features and regions to create the perception of a whole, unified object.

Bones in the middle ear

Malleus (hammer), Incus (Anvil), Stapes (stirrup)

ossicles of middle ear

Amplify the vibration/sounds

Hair Cells in the Inner Ear

Sensory receptors located in the cochleae that detect sound waves and transduce them into signals that ultimately are processed in the brain as sound

Odorant

chemical molecules that come from outside your body

Tastant

taste-provoking chemical molecules that are dissolved in ingested liquids or saliva

Olfactory Epithelium

a thin layer of tissue, deep within the nasal cavity, containing the olfactory receptors; these sensory receptors produce information that is processed in the brain as smell

Olfactory Receptor Neurons

detect the odorant molecules, transduce the odorants into signals that the brain will ultimately process

Consciousness

the combination of a person's subjective experience of the external world of the external world and the person's internal mental activity; this combination results from brain activity.

your moment by moment awareness of your experiences

Stage 1 of sleep

Alpha rhythms appear during relaxation and sharp waves called vertex spikes. Conscious awareness of both the external world and inner mental activity starts to decline. Drifting off to sleep

Stage 2 of sleep

Where a person is truly asleep; EEGs show K-complexes and sleep spindles, and there is much less conscious awareness of both the external world and inner mental activity.

Stage 3 of sleep

Slow-wave sleep is recognized by large, slow, delta waves. Person is substantially less conscious and is hard to awaken

REM Sleep

the stage of sleep where a person experiences rapid eye movements, dreaming, and paralysis of motor systems; EEGs show beta wave activity, which also associated with an awake conscious mind.

Agonist Drugs

drug that activates a receptor; enhance the actions of neurotransmitters

Antagonist Drugs

drug that prevents a neurotransmitter from binding to a receptor; inhibit the actions of a neurotransmitter.

Depressants

Psychoactive drugs that cause an altered state of of consciousness by decreasing behavior and mental activity. (Alcohol, barbiturates, and tranquilizers)

Stimulants

Psychoactive drugs that result in an altered state of consciousness by increasing behavior and mental activity. (Nicotine, caffeine, Ritalin, amphetamines, cocaine)

Hallucinogens

Psychoactive drugs that create an altered state of consciousness by affecting perceptual experiences and evoking sensory images even without sensory input. (Marijuana, LSD, mescaline, PCP, MDMA)

Learning

A change is behavior, resulting from experience

the acquisition of knowledge, skill, attitudes, or understanding as a result of experience

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus the naturally evokes a specific response (food)

a stimulus that elicits a response that is innate and does not require any prior learning

Unconditioned Response

The specific response that is naturally evoked by the US (salivating in response to food)

a response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex

Conditioned Stimulus

The previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with the US, eventually triggers the response (bell)

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

Conditioned Response

The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that was repeatedly paired with the US (salivating in response to the bell)

a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned

Stimulus Generalization

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to differentiate between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

a learning process in which an action's consequences determine how likely an action is to be performed in the future

Reinforcer

stimulus that appears in response to behavior. Increases the probability of that behavior occurring again

Punisher

is also a stimulus that appears in response to behavior. Decreases the probability of that behavior occurring again

Positive Reinforcement

the addition of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated

Negative Reinforcement

the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated

Positive Punishment

the addition of a stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur.

Negative Punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability that behavior will recur

Continuous Reinforcement

reinforcement after every target response

Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement

occasional reinforcement of behavior on a fixed schedule

Fixed Interval Schedule

reinforcing the occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reinforcement

Variable Interval Schedule

reinforcing the occurrence of a particular of particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reinforcement.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcing a particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined amount of times

Variable Ratio Schedule

reinforcing a particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times

latent learning

learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement

observational learning

the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior

Memory

the nervous system's ability to obtain and retain information and skills for later retrieval