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Hans Eysenck
A psychologist who published a study in the 1950s claiming that most people improve on their own and that psychotherapy has little benefit.
Efficacy
The effectiveness of psychotherapy in controlled research studies, which maximize internal validity.
Effectiveness
The degree to which psychotherapy works in real-world clinical settings, typically having higher external validity than efficacy studies.
Hana Strupp
A researcher who identified three parties that have a stake in psychotherapy outcomes: clients, therapists, and society.
Behavioral Measures
Assessments used to quantify the outcome of psychotherapy based on observable actions.
Eclectic Approaches
Therapeutic methods that select the best treatment for clients based on empirical data.
Integrative Approaches
Therapies that blend different techniques to create a hybrid treatment approach.
Therapeutic Alliance
The collaborative partnership between therapist and client aimed at achieving therapeutic goals.
Defense Mechanisms
Psychological strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety arising from unacceptable impulses.
Transference
The client unconsciously and unrealistically projects feelings, desires, and expectations from past relationships onto the therapist.
Condition of Worth
The perception that one's worth is dependent on meeting specific conditions or expectations set by others. I.e. “I’m good only if I receive positive feedback.”
Unconditional Positive Regard
Total acceptance of another person regardless of their actions or feelings, a key concept in humanistic therapy.
Motivational Interviewing
A client-centered approach aimed at addressing ambivalence to bring about change, originally developed for substance abuse.
Prolonged Exposure
A therapeutic technique for treating PTSD, where clients gradually confront trauma-related memories and situations.
Systematic Desensitization
A behavioral technique that pairs feared stimuli with relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety.
Free Association
A psychodynamic technique where clients speak freely to uncover unconscious thoughts.
Freudian Slips
Unintentional errors or slips of the tongue that are believed to reveal unconscious thoughts.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud's theory that describes five stages children pass through, impacting adult personality.
Ejaculation Control
One of many specific control techniques used within sexual therapy, often during psychosexual stages.
Empathy
A therapist's ability to understand and share the feelings of their client, essential for effective therapy.
Genuineness
The therapist's authenticity in the therapeutic relationship, crucial for building trust.
Countertransference
The therapist's emotional reaction to the client, influenced by the therapist's own past experiences.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
A widely used treatment that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques for addressing maladaptive thoughts and behavior.
Interpersonal Therapy (IPT)
A time-limited psychotherapy focusing on interpersonal relationships and social role expectations.
Relaxation Techniques
Methods taught to clients to help manage anxiety and stress, often used in systematic desensitization.
Conditioning
The process of learning associations between stimuli, including classical and operant conditioning.
Anxiety Hierarchy
A list of anxiety-provoking situations organized by the degree of fear they elicit, used in exposure therapy.
Displacement
A defense mechanism where emotional impulses are redirected from one object to a safer target.
Projection
A defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable feelings or motives onto others.
Dream Analysis
The interpretation of dreams as a way to uncover unconscious thoughts and feelings.
Resistance
Clients' defensive behaviors that arise when sensitive topics are discussed in therapy.
Behavioral Principles
The foundational concepts from behavioral psychology that inform practical therapeutic interventions.
Self-Actualization
The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potential, considered the key to psychological wellness. (can be encouraged through unconditional positive regard)
Positive Expectations
A common factor in therapy, where the therapist instills hope for improvement in clients.
The Dodo Bird Verdict
The conclusion that different psychotherapies may be equally effective.
Behavioral Psychology
The field of psychology that is concerned with the study and treatment of observed behavior.
Operant Conditioning
A learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that creates associations between a naturally occurring stimulus and a previously neutral stimulus.
Therapeutic Techniques
Specific methods employed by therapists to help bring about change in clients.
Client-Centered Therapy
A form of psychotherapy that encourages clients to lead the discussion and provides a supportive environment.
Dodo Bird Verdict
The claim that all forms of psychotherapy produce equal outcomes.
Competing therapies are often found to work about equally well
Mindfulness
A therapeutic approach that emphasizes awareness and acceptance of the present moment.
Behavioral Therapy
A therapeutic method that applies behavioral principles to modify harmful behaviors.
Manualized Treatment
Therapeutic approaches that follow specific guidelines or protocols to ensure consistency.
Holistic Approaches
Therapies that consider the complete person—including mental, emotional, physical, and spiritual aspects.
Research Gaps
Areas where there is insufficient or missing evidence in psychotherapy studies.
Integration of Findings
The combining of insights from various sources to inform clinical practice.
Psychotherapy Effectiveness
The degree to which psychotherapeutic methods produce desired outcomes in clients.
Client Motivation
The willingness and drive of clients to engage effectively in therapy.
Psychotherapy…is it effective?
It works! Found that this style of therapy had positive, lasting effects for the vast majority of respondents
Psychotherapy Criticisms:
Potential Sampling bias/how reliable are the client’s self-reports?
Tripartite Model
Hans Strupp suggested multiple parties may have meaningful and potentially inconsistent views of psychotherapy outcomes. He identified three parties who have a stake in how well therapy works.
The client, the therapist, and society (society can take the form of any outsider to the therapy process who has an interest in how therapy progresses. E.g., the legal system, clients’ family and friends, clients’ employers, managed-care companies)
Consumer Reports
Example of the effectiveness study
Surveyed its subscribers about their experiences with psychotherapy—found that psychotherapy had positive, lasting effects for the vast majority of respondents
Consumer Reports Criticisms
Potential sampling bias
How many would have improved without psychotherapy?
How reliable and valid are clients’ own self-reports
Common Factors
Though different all therapies share some fundamental components they hold similarities
Different therapies benefit from the same underlying mechanisms
Therapist relationship/alliance is thought to be the most important similarity across all techniques
Dianne Chambless
Argued that all psychotherapy approaches are not equally efficacious; pro manualized, evidence-based treatments.
Proposed the perspective approach to therapy
Prescriptive Approach
Specific therapy techniques are viewed as the treatment of choice for specific disorders
Change Model Stages
Precontemplation Stage
Contemplation Stage
Preparation Stage
Action Stage
Maintenance Stage
Precontemplation Stage
No intention to change at all
Contemplation Stage
Aware of the problem, considering doing something to change it, but not ready to commit to any real plan
Preparation Stage
Intending to take action within a short time (weeks, month)
Action Stage
Actively changing behavior and making notable efforts to overcome their problems
Maintenance Stage
Preventing relapse and retaining the improvements made after the action stage
Alternative Ways to Measuring Psychotherapy (aside from efficacy and effectiveness)
Neurobiological effects! psychotherapy changes the brain…
Neurobiological Effects
studies using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). These neuroimaging technologies have showed that this form of therapy is reliable for specific disorders like OCD, depression
Eclectic Therapy
therapy involves selecting the best treatment for a given client based on empirical data from studies of the treatment of similar clients
Integrative Therapy
approach to therapy involves blending techniques in order to create an entirely new, hybrid form of therapy
Future Predictions about Psychotherapy
Increase of:
Mindfulness-based approaches to therapy
Cognitive behavioral approaches to therapy
Multicultural approaches to therapy
Eclectic/integrative approaches to therapy
Therapies involving the use of technology and evidence-based practice (more generally)
Psychodynamic therapy will decrease in popularity
Extinction
the removal of an expected reinforcement that results in a decrease in the frequency of a behavior
Extinction Burst
the initial increase in intensity of the unwanted behavior immediately after the expected reinforcement is removed
Dream Analysis
Freud believed that when we sleep, our minds convert latent content (the raw thoughts and feelings of the unconscious) to manifest content (the actual plot of the dream as we remember it)
Dream Work
uses symbols to express wishes, which can result in unconscious wishes appearing in disguised or distorted forms
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Primary Goal
attempt to understand their client’s unconscious processes in a variety of ways through: free association, freudian slips,dreams, resistance, defense mechanisms, transference
“Blank Screen” Role
essential for therapists to use this technique in psychodynamic therapy and identifying transference in particular
Therapists typically reveal little about themselves (verbally and nonverbally)
Word Association
mental connection between words; an individual will respond to a stimulus word w/ the first word that comes to mind
Allegiance Effect
the influence of a researcher’s own biases and preferences on the outcome of their empirical studies.
Humanistic Psychotherapy:
Founded by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow; believed that people are naturally good or neutral but not bad!
Primary Goal of Humanistic Psychotherapy
Self Actualization!
Congruence
Match between the real and ideal self
Real Self
who the person actually is
Ideal Self
the person they could be if they met their full potential
Incongruence
when your real self and ideal self don’t match and you’re constantly left comparing the 2.
3 Conditions needed for Humanistic Psychotherapy
Empathy, Unconditional Positive Regard and Genuineness
Are the 3 condition needed for Humanistic Psychotherapy useful?
In conclusion these conditions ARE necessary (especially in developing a positive therapeutic relationship), but NOT sufficient alone to cause change in all clients
Alternatives to the Humanistic Approach
Existential Psychotherapy and Gestalt Therapy
Existential Psychotherapy
a type of therapy rooted in philosophy, human condition, freedom, responsibility and research for the meaning of life compared to solely diagnosing and treating mental health conditions
Gestalt Therapy
psychotherapeutic approach developed by Fritz Perls (1893–1970). It focuses on insight into patients and their relations to the world, and often uses role playing to aid the resolution of past conflicts
Behavior psychotherapy
The clinical application of behavioral principles (e.g., operant conditioning, classical conditioning, modeling)
Primary Goal: witness observable change
What did Edward Lee and Thorndike discover…
Operant conditioning
Thorndike also proposed…
the law of effect which stated that all organisms pay attention to the consequences (or effects) of their actions
Behavior psychotherapy reminder…
Clients' behaviors are not symptoms of some underlying problem, behaviors are the problem
Professionals don’t make inferences on what’s happening in their client’s mind
Exposure Therapy
used to treat anxiety disorders (e.g., specific phobia, agoraphobia)
presenting the client to a fearful stimulus
Imaginal exposure
imagining anxiety-provoking situations
Vivo Exposure
exposing the client to real-life items or situations that are anxiety-provoking (irl)
Desensitization V.S. Exposure
Similar to exposure, but systematic desensitization involves relaxation training as the first step
Before each exposure, the client achieves a relaxed stat
Exposure and Response Prevention
you expose the person to what they are afraid of to prevent them from performing their typical response
gained a lot of empirical support for the treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Assertiveness Training
Specific application of classical conditioning that targets clients’ social anxiety
Includes elements of exposure therapy (exposure is facing interpersonal fears)
Shaping
reinforcing successive approximations of the target behavior
The behavior therapist reinforces “baby steps” toward the desired behavior
Behavioral Activation
A form of behavior therapy designed to treat depression
Based on the notion that in the day-to-day lives of depressed people, there is a shortage of positive reinforcement
Goal is to increase the frequency of behaviors that are positively reinforcing to the client
Token Economy
a setting in which clients can earn tokens for participating in predetermined target behaviors
Tokens can be exchanged for reinforcements (e.g., food, games, toys, privileges)