Chapter 2: Normative Development — Key Terms (Vocabulary)

A vocabulary set of key terms and definitions drawn from the notes on normative development, biological, cognitive, emotional, social, family, and cultural contexts of child development.

Normative development

The typical, orderly progression of biological, cognitive, emotional, and social growth in childhood; serves as a baseline to identify abnormal development.

Biological context

The bodily and genetic factors that shape development, including temperament, brain development, and neurochemistry.

Genetics

Inheritance of traits via genotype and phenotype, and how genes interact with the environment to influence development.

Epigenetics

The study of how gene expression is influenced by environmental conditions, shaping individual developmental differences.

Heritability

A measure of how much of the variation in a trait within a group is due to shared genes versus shared or nonshared environments.

Passive gene-environment interaction

Genetic and environmental influences that happen to be present together in biological families (e.g., depressed mother both passes on genes and provides a depressive caregiving environment).

Evocative gene-environment interaction

Genetic tendencies elicit certain responses from the environment (e.g., a difficult temperament attracts negative parenting).

Active gene-environment interaction (niche-picking)

Individuals seek out environments that fit their genetic predispositions, shaping their own development.

Prenatal cross-fostering

A research design comparing biology-related and unrelated mothers to study prenatal and postnatal environmental influences.

Twin concordance

The probability that both twins show a trait; higher for identical twins than fraternal twins, indicating genetic influence.

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart

A classic study showing genetic contributions to personality by comparing identical twins raised apart with those raised together.

Neuropsychology

The study of brain structure, function, and chemistry and how these relate to behavior and psychopathology.

Neuroarchitecture

Brain structure and organization, including how different regions connect and interact.

Neurochemistry

Neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, serotonin, GABA, norepinephrine) and neuroendocrines that influence brain function and behavior.

HPA axis

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; a central stress response system regulating cortisol release and the fight/flight/freeze response.

Cortisol

A stress hormone released by the HPA axis; excessive exposure can affect brain development and function.

Brain development: myelination

Process by which nerve fibers become insulated with myelin to speed neural transmission.

Brain development: pruning

Removal of unnecessary neural connections to optimize brain efficiency, continuing into adolescence.

Gray matter

Brain tissue consisting of neuronal cell bodies responsible for processing information.

White matter

Brain tissue rich in myelinated axons that facilitates communication between brain regions.

Lobes of the cerebral cortex (occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal)

Four major cortical areas with distinct functions: visual processing (occipital), sensory processing (parietal), auditory/memory (temporal), and higher cognitive functions (frontal).

Lateralization

Specialization of each hemisphere for certain functions (e.g., left for language, right for visual/spatial processing).

Corpus callosum

A bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres to enable interhemispheric communication.

Piaget

Influential developmental theorist who proposed stages of cognitive development and processes of adaptation.

Sensorimotor stage

Piaget’s stage from birth to about 2 years; knowledge develops through sensorimotor interaction with the world.

Preoperational stage

Piaget’s stage (approx. ages 2-7) characterized by symbolic thinking, magical thinking, and egocentrism.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance; a key milestone of concrete-operational thinking.

Concrete-operational stage

Piaget’s stage (ages 7-11) where logical thinking about concrete objects emerges.

Formal-operational stage

Piaget’s stage (about age 12 onward) in which abstract and hypothetical reasoning develops.

Assimilation

Incorporating new information into existing mental schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information.

Magical thinking

Belief that one’s thoughts can influence the world, common in early development and in some psychopathologies.

Egocentrism

Difficulty recognizing another’s point of view; viewing the world primarily from one’s own perspective.

Social information processing model

A sequence of cognitive steps (encode cues, interpret, generate responses, select, act) used to solve social problems.

Hostile attribution bias

Tendency to interpret others’ ambiguous actions as having hostile intent, often seen in aggression.

Emotion regulation

The ability to monitor, evaluate, and modify emotional responses to achieve goals.

Emotion dysregulation

Difficulty regulating emotions, leading to externalizing or internalizing problems.

Emotion recognition

Ability to identify and understand others’ emotions from facial and vocal cues.

Social referencing

Looking to a caregiver’s emotional cues to interpret unfamiliar or ambiguous situations.

Attachment

Bonding relationship between infant and caregiver that organizes later emotional and social development.

Strange Situation

A laboratory procedure (Ainsworth) to assess attachment quality by observing infant responses to separation and reunion with caregiver.

Secure attachment

Infant explores freely, seeks comfort upon reunion, and is easily soothed; caregiver is responsive.

Insecure-avoidant attachment

Infant shows little distress upon separation and avoids caregiver upon reunion; caregiver is distant.

Insecure-resistant (ambivalent) attachment

Infant is highly distressed by separation and seeks/repels caregiver upon reunion; inconsistent caregiving.

Insecure-disorganized attachment

Confused or contradictory behaviors toward the caregiver; often linked to frightening or unpredictable caregiving.

Internal working model

Mental representations of the self and others formed from early attachment that guide future relationships.

Self-concept

The organized set of beliefs and perceptions about oneself.

Self-esteem

How positively or negatively one evaluates oneself; a component of self-concept.

Identity

A person’s sense of who they are, including roles, values, and beliefs; evolves through adolescence.

Ethnic identity

Sense of belonging to an ethnic group and value attached to that membership.

Bicultural identity

Integrated sense of self that combines two or more cultural identities.

Ego resilience

Ability to adapt flexibly to changing circumstances and recover from adversity.

Ego control

Capacity to regulate impulses; can be high (overcontrol) or low (undercontrol).

Ego defenses

Unconscious psychological mechanisms used to reduce anxiety or manage conflict.

Defense mechanisms (summary)

Strategies (e.g., repression, denial, projection, sublimation) to protect the ego from distress.

Self-regulation

Ability to regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve goals.

Moral development

Progression from simple to more complex understandings of right and wrong and internalization of values.

Moral reasoning stages (Kohlberg)

Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels describing advancement in moral judgment.

Internalization

Process by which external standards become internalized guiding one’s own behavior.

Committed compliance

Early internalization where the child willingly adheres to rules and values.

Shame

Self-focused negative emotion triggered by public disapproval or failure to meet standards.

Guilt

Other-focused or self-evaluative emotion tied to specific behavior and internal standards.

Empathy

Emotional response to others’ feelings, including concern and prosocial motivation.

Conscience

Internalized moral standards that guide behavior and regulate impulses.

Socialization

Process by which individuals learn values, norms, and behaviors through family, peers, and culture.

Gender identity

One’s sense of being male, female, or other gender, regardless of sex assigned at birth.

Gender roles

Societal expectations about appropriate behaviors and attitudes for males and females.

Agency vs. communion (gender roles)

Masculine-associated agency (dominance, assertiveness) and feminine-associated communion (care, warmth) traits.

Sexual orientation

Pattern of romantic or sexual attractions toward others (e.g., heterosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender).

Sexual minority identity development

Process of recognizing and integrating a non-heterosexual orientation into one’s identity.

Culture-bound syndromes

Culture-specific patterns of symptoms that may not align with Western diagnostic categories (e.g., zar, amok, taijin kyofusho, ataque de nervios).

Racism and prejudice

Discrimination or negative attitudes toward individuals based on race or ethnicity.

Acculturation

Process of adapting to a new culture, including changes in language, values, and behaviors.

Acculturation stress

Psychological distress arising from adapting to a different culture.

Ethnicity vs. race

Race: physical characteristics-based category; ethnicity: cultural affiliation and belonging.

Poverty and social class

Socioeconomic conditions that shape access to resources and risk for developmental problems.

Protective factors

Conditions that reduce risk and promote resilience in development.

Risk factors

Characteristics or contexts that increase the likelihood of psychopathology or adversity.

Baumrind parenting styles

Four typologies based on warmth and control: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, neglectful.

Authoritative parenting

High warmth and high structure; associated with secure, self-reliant children.

Authoritarian parenting

High structure, low warmth; demanding and controlling; linked to obedience but potential low self-esteem.

Permissive/indulgent parenting

High warmth, low structure; permissive; risk of dependency or impulsivity.

Neglectful parenting

Low warmth and low structure; minimal involvement; linked to negative outcomes.

Parental sensitivity

Attentiveness and responsiveness to a child’s signals, enabling scaffolding and autonomy.

Scaffolding

Supportive guidance that gradually fades as the child becomes more competent.

Boundary dissolution

Problems in family boundaries often leading to enmeshment or intrusive parenting.

Intrusive parenting

Overly controlling or psychologically controlling behavior that manipulates a child’s inner life.

Enmeshment

Lack of autonomy where parent and child are overly intertwined; limits differentiation.

Spousification (parentification)

A parent relies on a child for emotional support or adult-partner-like roles.

Interparental conflict

Conflict between parents that can affect child well-being, even if not divorced.

Divorce

Formal dissolution of marriage; often accompanied by changes in family structure and stressors for children.

Pygmalion effect

Expectations from others (e.g., teachers) that influence a child’s performance.

Sociometric status

Peer-perceived social standing, usually categorized as accepted, rejected, neglected, controversial, or popular.

Extracurricular/Extr these adults

Influences from teachers, coaches, mentors, and other non-family adults on child development.

Cross-cultural norms and expectations

Cultural beliefs about what is normal or acceptable behavior, influencing development and psychopathology.

Culture-bound beliefs and stereotypes

culturally specific ideas about behavior and mental health that can shape pathology or resilience.