Sediments
Sedimentary Rock
Metamorphic Rock
Magma
Extrusive Igneous Rock
Intrusive Igneous Rock
(1) Rocks that has gone through weathering (2) Formed through Lithification (compaction and cementation) (3) Caused by Metamorphism (heat and intense pressure) (4) Rocks that are melted due to high heat; Able to move around (5) Magma that has cooled down very quickly (6) Magma that cooled off slowly, forming large crystals
Weathering (transport & deposition)
Lithification (compaction & cementation)
Metamorphism (heat & intense pressure)
Melting
(a)Cooling or (b)Crystallization
(1) Breaks down rock that is transported and deposited as SEDIMENT (2) Process where sediment is compacted and cemented to form SEDIMENTARY ROCK (3) Process when sedimentary rock is buried deep in the crust, heat and pressure(stress) change it to METAMORPHIC ROCK (4) Melted metamorphic rock due to high heat beneath Earth’s surface (5) When (a)lava or (b)magma cools and solidifies, forming igneous rock: (a)Extrusive and (b)Intrusive
Uplift
lift up from the earth, as by geologic forces
Igneous rock
rocks formed by melting, cooling and crystallization of other rocks
the solidified products of once-molten material that was created by melting in the upper mantle or crust
Extrusive Igneous Rock
igneous rocks produced through rapid cooling
rocks formed above the Earth’s surface
Intrusive Igneous Rock
igneous rocks produced through slow cooling below the Earth’s surface
Texture
described the overall appearance of an igneous rocks, based on the SIZE and ARRANGEMENT of its interlocking crystals
Course-grained(Phaneritic)
have inter-grown crystals that are roughly equal in size and large enough that the individual minerals within can be identified and formed by slow cooling BELOW ground
Fine-grained(Aphanitic)
are composed of individual crystals that are too small to be identified without strong magnification and fromed by rapid cooling ABOVE ground
Porphyritic
are composed of both visible and non-visible crystals and formed by different cooling systems
Glassy
have no crystal structure, and probably formed by very rapid cooling(such as on the surface of a lava or when lava enters water)
Vesicular
have voids created by rapid cooling which causes air bubbles to trapped inside
Pyroclastic(Fragmental)
results from the consolidation of fragments that may include ash, once molten blobs or angular block that were ejected during an explosive volcanic eruption
Composition
refers to the abundance and type of minerals it contains Ex. Igneous rocks can be divided intro groups based on the proportions of light and dark silicate minerals
Felsic(Granitic)
Granite
Rhyolite • Quartz & Potassium Feldspar
composed mainly of the light-colored minerals. Dark-colored minerals account for no more than fifteen percent of the minerals in rocks in this group
its dominant minerals are Quartz & Potassium feldspar
its examples are 1 & 2 • Dominant Minerals?
Intermediate(Andesitic) 3. Diorite 4. Andesite • Amphibole & Plagioclase Feldspar
are mixtures of both light-colored minerals and dark-colored minerals
its dominant minerals are Amphibole and Plagioclase feldspar
its example are 3 & 4 • Dominant Minerals?
Mafic(Basaltic) 5. Gabbro 6. Basalt • Pyroxene & Plagioclase Feldspar
contain abundant dark-colored minerals
its dominant minerals are Pyroxene and Plagioclase feldspar
its examples are 5 & 6 • Dominant Minerals?
Ultramafic ? Peridotite • Olivine & Pyroxene
composed almost entirely of the dark silicate minerals
its dominant minerals are Olivine and Pyroxene • Dominant Minerals?
Sedimentary rocks
formed by weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation of other rocks
formed in areas where water, wind or gravity deposit sediments
materials that accumulate as sediment have two principal sources: SOLID PARTICLES and SOLUBLE MATERIALS
Detrital sedimentary rocks
rocks formed from transported solid particles
Chemical and Biochemical sedimentary rocks
rocks formed soluble materials
Clay minerals
Quartz
Calcite
Evaporate minerals
Altered plant fragments
COMPOSITIONS: most sedimentary rocks contain a high percentage of one of the following
Clastic
rocks that were made by other rock materials that have been weathered and eroded and is grouped according to the grain size they are maid of
one of the basic TEXTURES exhibited by sedimentary rocks
Rudaceous
Arenaceous
Argillaceous
• types of Clastic Texture (1) made of gravel; sediment diameter greater than 2mm (2) made of sand; sediment diameter of 0.063 mm to 2mm (3) made of silt or clay; sediment size of less than 0.063 mm
Nonclastic
rock were made chemically and organically. Its grouped into 3 types
one of the basic TEXTURES exhibited by sedimentary rocks
Evaporites
• type of Nonclastic Texture
formed from the evaporation of water leaving the dissolved minerals to crystallize
Precipitates
• type of Nonclastic texture
rocks formed when minerals from a supersaturated waters start to crystallize at the bottom of the solution
Bioclastics
• type of Nonclastic textures
rock formed from compacted organic matter
Metamorphic Rocks
formed by heat and pressure changing one type of rock intro another type of rock
these types of rocks are formed near lava intrusions, at plate subduction zones, and in deep mountain roots
Contact Metamorphism
changes that occur when magma is injected or is in contact with surrounding rocks; usually happens on hot spots or magmatic plumes
Regional Metamorphism
changes that occur because of increasing heat and pressure; happens in subduction zones or deep mountain roots
Foliated Rocks
form when differential pressure causes minerals to form in layers
these rocks will have stripes or planes that they will break easily along
these “stripes” don’t usually line up with the original bedding planes in sedimentary rocks
metamorphic rocks based on Foliation
A. Salty or Rock Cleavage B. Phyllite texture C. Schistosity D. Gneissic texture
• different foliated textures
Non-foliated Rocks
metamorphic rocks formed in areas where the pressure from all sides was equal, so there is no “linear” quality to the rocks
consist of inter-grown crystals of various size and are most often identified by determining their mineral composition.
metamorphic rocks based on Foliation
E. Coarse grained F. Fine grained
two non-foliated textures
Minerals
any NATURAL OCCURRING INORGANIC SOLID that possesses an orderly CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE and be represented by a CHEMICAL FORMULA
Luster
• physical property of minerals
used to described how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral
two main types: Metallic & Nonmetalic; with submetalic in the middle
Ability to Transmit Light
• physical property of minerals
opaque
translucent
transparent
Color
• physical property of minerals
the visible color that mineral sample appears to the naked eye
not a reliable characteristic to use for mineral identification
Streak
• physical property of minerals
the color of a mineral in its powdered form
tested by rubbing a sample against an unglazed ceramic streak plate
Crystal Form or Habit
• physical property of minerals
the external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is a displayed/observed as these crystals grow in open spaces
Hardness
• physical property of minerals
a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion
uses Mohs scale
Cleavage
• physical property of minerals
the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along flat, even surface
Fracture
• physical property of minerals
uneven breakage of a mineral
Specific gravity
• physical property of minerals
a number representing the ratio of a mineral’s weight to the weight of an equal volume of water
Silicates
• property of minerals: Mineral groups
minerals composed of mostly silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) combined with one or more metals and other elements
makes up over 90% of the Earth’s Crust
its basic building block is silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
Olivine group
No Cleavage
Single tetrahedron silicate structure
Example is Olivine
• Silicate mineral made of lone SiO4 tetrahedral structure
usually has glassy luster, small and rounded feature and conchoidal fracture
Pyroxene Group
2 perfect cleavage directions
Single chain silicate structure
Example is Augite
• Silicate mineral made of single-chain SiO4 tetrahedral structure
usually has white to green and dark green to black
Amphibole Group
2 imperfect cleavage directions
Double chain silicate structure
Example is Hornblende
• generally dark-colored, like pyroxene, but differs in cleavage
Micas
Biotite
Muscovite
1 perfect cleavage direction
Example is Biotite
Example is Muscovite
• usually has a slight silver to black color and relatively soft
Feldspars
Potassium feldspar
Plagioclase
Has 1 perfect cleavage
Quartz
Has no cleavage
Three-dimensional networks
Example is Potassium feldspar
Example is Quartz
• usually has light silver to black color and relatively soft; • can also be very hard, have conchoidal fractures, clear or varying color and varying habit
Oxides ? Chromite
• property of minerals: Mineral groups: NON-SILICATES
minerals containing oxygen anion combined with one or more metals ions
Sulfates ? Anglesite
• property of minerals: Mineral groups: NON-SILICATES
minerals containing sulfur and oxygen anion combined with other ions
Sulfides ? Arsenopyrite
• property of minerals: Mineral groups: NON-SILICATES
minerals containing sulfur anion combined with one or more ions
Carbonates ? Calcite
• property of minerals: Mineral groups: NON-SILICATES
minerals containing the carbonate anion combined with other elements
Halide ? Halite
• property of minerals: Mineral groups: NON-SILICATES
minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more elements
Native Elements
• property of minerals: Mineral groups: NON-SILICATES
minerals that form as individual elements
metals and inter-metals, semi-metals, non metals
Resources
is the term used to describe the total amount of any given geological material of potential economic interest, whether discoverable or not
Reserve
is the term used to describe the portion of a resource that has been discovered or inferred with sme degree of certainty and can be extracted for a profit
Mineral Occurrence
concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical interest
Ore
naturally-occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted
Ore Deposit
mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to mine
Aggregate
rock or mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally used to describe nonmetallic deposits
Mineral Deposits
mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions
most rocks of the Earth’s crust contain metals and other elements but at very low concentrations
there are naturally occurring processes(geologic processes) that can concentrate minerals and elements in rocks of a particular area
Metallic Minerals
Non-metallic minerals
• types of mineral resources (1) gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron (2) talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel
Magmatic Ore Deposits
• classification of Ore Deposits
valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body through magmatic processes suck as crystal fractionation, partial melting and crystal settling
these processes can concentrate the ore minerals that contain valuable substances after accumulating elements that were once widely dispersed and in low concentration within the magma
Hydrothermal Ore Deposits
• classification of Ore Deposits
concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks
hydrothermal solutions - are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma crystallization and may contain large amount of dissolved metals.
There are numerous hydrothermal mineral deposits as compared to the different types of deposits: Vein Type, Disseminated, Massive Sulfide, and Stratabound Deposits
Sedimentary Ore Deposits
• classification of Ore Deposits
some valuable substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater
has 2 types
Evaporite Deposits
• type of Sedimentary Ore Deposits
typically occurs in a closed marine environment where evaporation is greater than water inflow. As most of the water evaporates, the dissolved substances become more concentrated in the residual water and would eventually precipitate
Iron Formation
• type of Sedimentary Ore Deposits
these deposits are made up of repetitive thin layers of iron-rich chert and several other iron bearing minerals such as hematite and magnetite
Placer Ore Deposits
• classification of Ore Deposits
deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity
usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines
usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and weathering
Residual Ore Deposits
• classification of Ore Deposits
a type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering processes
during the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching
important factors for the formation of this deposit include parent rock composition, climate (tropical and sub-tropical: must be favorable for chemical decay) and relief (must not be high to allow accumulation)
Common deposits are bauxites and nickeliferous laterites.
Project Design
• types of Mineral Exploration
This is the INITIAL STAGE in formulating a project.
This involves review of all available data (geologic reports, mining history, maps, etc.), government requirements in acquiring the project, review of social, environmental, political and economic acceptability of the project, and budget and organization proposals.
Field Exploration
• types of Mineral Exploration
this stage involves PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES in the selected project area.
this can be subdivided intro three phases
Regional Reconnaissance
Field Exploration Phase 1
The main objective is to identify targets or interesting mineralized zones covering a relatively large area (regional). In general, the activities involve regional surface investigation and interpretation.
Detailed Exploration
Field Exploration Phase 2
This involves more detailed surface and subsurface activities with the objective of finding and delineating targets or mineralized zones.
Prospect Evaluation
Field Exploration Phase 3
The main objective is to assess market profitability by (1) extensive resource, geotechnical and engineering drilling (2) metallurgical testing and (3) environmental and societal cost assessment.
Feasibility Study
• types of Mineral Exploration
determines and validates the accuracy of all date and information collected from the different stages.
the purpose is for independent assesses to satisfy interested investors to raise funds and bring the project into productions
Surface Mining
• Mining Method
utilized to extract ore minerals that are close to Earth’s surface
SHALLOW deposits are removed
Quarry (quarrying)
• types of surface mining
a place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate has been excavated from the ground
Open-Pit Mining
• types of surface mining
machines dig holes and remove ores, sand grave and stone
toxic groundwater can accumulate at the bottom
Area Strip Mining
• types of surface mining
Earth movers strips away overburden and giant shovels removes mineral deposit
often leaves highly erodible hills of rubble called spoil banks
Contour Strip Mining
• types of surface mining
used on hilly or mountainous terrain
unless the land is restored, a wall of dirt is left in front of a highly erodible bank called highwall
Underground Mining
• Mining Method
utilized to extract ore minerals from the orebody that is deep under the Earth’s surface
Smelting
• Mineral extraction
a process of applying heat to ore in order to extract a base metal. It is a form of extractive metallurgy. It is used to extract many metals from their ores, including silver, iron, copper, and other base metals.
Heavy media separation
• Mineral extraction: Milling Recovery Method
The crushed rocks are submerged in liquid where the heavier/denser minerals sink thus are separated from the lighter minerals.
Magnetic Separation
• Mineral extraction: Milling Recovery Method
If the metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the waste materials using a powerful magnet.
Flotation
• Mineral extraction: Milling Recovery Method
The powdered ore is placed into an agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals may either sink to the bottom or may stick to the bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the minerals and metals from the waste.
Cyanide Heap Leaching
• Mineral extraction: Milling Recovery Method
This method used for low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or dripped on top of the pile.