Individuals - Britain

Clement Attlee

Elected as Prime Minister in 1945, introduced the National Health Service Act (1946) - operation started 1948, Rationing, high taxation and nationalisation including steel + iron (seen as a power grab due to industry doing well), reliance on Marshall Aid, expenses in Korean War (50-53), nuclear development + NHS - pound was devalued. Age of austerity. Severe divisions grew in party due to prescription charges (1951- Bevan walked out). Lost 1951 election despite 14 million votes + resigned as Labour party leader 1955 after losing the 1955 election. 

Bevan / Nye

Architect of the NHS and figurehead for the left in labour party split. Health minister for Attlee but resigned 1951 due to prescription payments under Gaitskell as CofE. Stood for party leadership in 1955 but lost to Gaitskell. Supported strongly by Trade unionists + left. Initially opposed nuclear weapons development like majority followers but opposed unilateralism in 1957 when many of his followers supported it due to pressure groups like CND. Wanted labour to be more socialist. 

Gaitskell

Chancellor of the Exchequer (1950-51), introduced prescription charges due to NHS cost. Right wing of Labour party. Became party leader in 1955 election by defeating Bevan. Unsuccessfully tried to reform the labour party to appeal to voters with more moderate policies (ultimately lost again with a larger majority). After 1959 election tried to get Labour to abandon clause IV of constitution that committed labour to nationalisation - failed to put to vote + split exacerbated. At Scarborough conference 1960 Left pushed labour to commit to unilateralism and Gaitskell promised to “fight and fight and fight” to save the party from it - which he did at the conference in 1961 when it was dropped.

Frank Cousins

Opposed Gaitskell, especially on nuclear weapons. Was leader of the powerful union TGWU (transport and general workers union). Led unions to take a hostile, left-wing position against Gaitskell. Helped push through unilateralism for 1960 Scarborough conference 

Winston Churchill

PM in war years and returned in 1951 with a younger, keen party that defeated the more tired, old labour party. Churchill was 77 when elected in 1951 + suffered poor health whilst in power. He suffered at least two strokes in 1951-55, one in 1953 - these impaired his speech and led him to even more eccentric behaviour. This meant he became more of a figure head to the party as he had many absences from government and Eden and Butler essentially led the party in these years. Was forced to resign in April 1955 before the election. Rationing ended (1954) in this period.

Butler

Chancellor of exchequer (1951-55). Was essentially leading the party in Churchill’s absences and ill health during 1951-55 term. Due to economic boom after the post-war hangover he was able to give out a “give-away budget” with £134 million in tax cuts before the 1955 election in order to encourage voters. Called Eden - “the best prime minister we have” in a sly insult. Home secretary (1957-62) - introduced the Commonwealth Immigrants Bill and had it passed in 1962 due to increasing racially motivated violence and over 100,000 immigrants in 1961 and 62 respectively. Was a poor Chairman of the conservative party until 1961 as had too many roles and lack passion + drive of Labour party at this time - party was disorganised + ran a poor election campaign.

Eden

Foreign Secretary for Churchill (December 1940 - 1955), acting Prime minister in Churchill’s absences + essentially ed part whilst he was away. Had been a rising political star of the 1930s. Fashionable and well liked - crowds of women waited for him at train stations with flowers - essentially prime minister in waiting. Believed in Britain as an Imperial power, wanted to step out of Churchill’s shadow and show his proficiency at foreign policy - this led to the Suez Crisis. In secret meeting in Paris was encouraged by France + Italy to attempt to take back control of the Suez Canal which had been seized by Colonel Nasser (Egypt leader). This was a massive failure as OPEC countries stopped sending and increased the prices of oil for Britain and USA refused to offer aid - US Treasury Secretary said “you’re not getting a dime until you get out of Suez” - Resigned after withdrawal (1956) in 1957. 

Nasser

Populist, nationalist leader of independent Egypt. Nationalised the Suez Canal (so took control of it away from France and England) after USA + Britain pulled investment for the Aswan Dam (hydroelectric power development) when they discovered Nasser was also in talks with the USSR. Seemed allied with USSR. Embarrassed Britain and Eden believed his actions mirrored that of 1930s dictators. Plan in Suez (October 29th 1956 - December 22 1956) and invasion of Egypt showed Britain as an imperial force and was regarded as morally wrong by many, including the United Nations. 

Peter Thorneycroft

Was C of E under Macmillan - quit in 1958 over poor budget and economic management. (Stop-go, inflation etc)

Macmillan (1951-1963)

Minister of housing (1951-54) - delivered on pledge to build 300,000 houses a year in 1953 - a year earlier than planned. One of the first to realise Britain needed to pull out of Suez. Replaced Eden n as PM (1957-). Was very out of touch with majority of Britons as a high class toff (Eton attendant - all cabinet but three went to Grand Public Schools) - Mocked viciously in satires (eg. The week that was (1962-3) + Beyond the Fringe. Gave the “Never had it so good” speech as a warning - 1957 - Economy suffered terribly due to his lack of planning (Stop-go economics + inflation). Applied to join EEC 1961 + denied by French VETO 1963. Continued British withdrawal from Empire that had began in 1947 w/ India to African colonies (The wind of change blowing through Africa speech - Cape Town 1960). Night of the Long knives. Resigned in October 1963 due to poor health.

Charles de Gaul

President of France that Veto-ed Britain joining the EEC in 1963 in a televised press-conference as a result of wanting to protect it from “las Anglo-Saxons” and influence of the USA (believed Britain had ulterior motives to join), not wanting to change the pre-existing EEC structures that benefitted France (eg. Common Agricultural Policy) and fearing Britain diluting French power within the EEC if they joined. He even made Macmillan cry with his stubbornness to not let Britain join despite all other countries in the inner six agreeing with it and being in successful talks with chief negotiator Edward Heath.

President Eisenhower

Outraged at Britain in the Suez crisis as they as he had not been made aware of Eden’s plan and that it was an election year - he felt as though he had been made a food and refused to give Britain any loans until they got out of Suez. He had a warm relationship with Macmillan. Britain mediated in organising meetings between USA and USSR (eg. Paris 1960

Jomo Kenyatta

Leader of the Kenyan colonial resistance movement - the “Mau Mau”. Was imprisoned by Britain but later became president of independent Kenya. In the bitter fighting between his group and Britain many prisoners were taken and sent to the Hola Prison Camp that treated prisoners poorly. All this was bad for Britain’s reputation as well as being expensive so Kenya won independence in 1963. 

President Kennedy

Enjoyed a warm relationship with Macmillan. Kept Britain informed about the Cuban missile crisis (1962). Britain was reliant on “American Polaris Submarine Weapons System”  for nuclear capabilities after abandoning its own rocket project, “Blue Streak”, in 1960. 

Lord Douglas-Home

Used to be a member of the house of lords. Gave up his place when he was chosen to replace Macmillan in 1963. Election was rearded as “undemocratic” as he was selected by the ‘magic circle’ of old etonians that made up the Cabinet. Public regarded him as a clone of Macmillan and his aristocratic background meant that the “Establishment” label continued to be pressed onto the Conservative Govt. Contributed to the Conservative loss in the 1964 election

Selwyn Lloyd

Chancellor of the Exchequer (1960-62) under Macmillan. Introduced unpopular deflationary measures for the economy (eg. 1961 Pay Pause). Was removed from this position on “The Night of The Long Knives” (JULY 1962) in Macmillan’s attempt to inject freshness into the party. On this night 39 out of 101 govt ministerial posts experienced abrupt change - this highlighted the desperation Macmillan + the conservatives as Macmillan “laid down his friends for his life” - Jeremy Thorpe (Liberal MP)

Harold Wilson

A political tactician skilled with the use of ‘spin’ who was able to emulate the ‘political zeitgeist’ of the moment in the 1964 + 1966 election. Wilson was a political opportunist, acting as a Bevanite (resigned over prescription charges 1950) + working in Gaitskell’s cabinet + facing off against him for leadership of the left in 1961 but failing (hard to identify political opinions). Wilson was also deeply paranoid, often encouraging feuds between cabinet members (DEA VS TREASURY) to ensure he would not be challenged. He trusted few, forming a small group of advisers that met frequently in the kitchen of 10 Downing Street (Kitchen Cabinet) - this included Marcia Williams. Had a public (+ real) personal of being an ordinary, charming man - played on his common upbringing (Yorkshire, secondary state school, 1st degree from oxford, liked pubs + football) - this was played on by satirists. He failed to get Britain into EEC and did not deliver on promise to not devalue the pound (1967). Faced major backlash as a result of this + his lie on Television in Nov 1967

Marcia Williams

Personal Political Secretary to Wilson (was not an MP) and a member of his “Kitchen Cabinet” that closely advised Wilson and consequently was a part of the small group that made many of the political decisions of the country. This group was formed as Wilson was paranoid he was being watched and trusted very few of his cabinet. Rumours the two were having an affair.

George Brown

Deputy of the Labour Party and leader of the Department for Economic affairs 1964 (DEA) that were supposed to be the engine room for innovation in “the white heat of the technological revolution”. Clashed with the Treasury and James Callaghan as competed to decide what to do with the British economy (victims of Wilson’s divide and rule approach). DEA created the National Plan (1966) - a blueprint of targets for the economy that was abandoned as targets weren’t met despite being signed by significant economical figures.

James Callaghan (1964-70)

Chancellor the Exchequer under Wilson but forced to resign in 1967 after the devaluation of the pound. Fought with Brown and the DEA about who had control of and what to do with the British Economy. Was against “In Place of Strife” (Jan 1969) due to strong links with unions + fear of party divisions, walked out + appealed to Wilson to drop the white paper proposal by Barbara Castle.

Barbara Castle

A politician popular within the Labour party + with trade unions. Gave the “In place of strife” white paper proposal in January 1969. Led to major rows within the party as trade unions felt betrayed (as labour was meant to represent the working classes (e.g. Jack Jones - leader of the Transport and General workers union protested). Due to divisions in cabinet and fights becoming severe Wilson was forced to drop “In Place of Strife” and accept a face-saving compromise negotiated between the TUC and cabinet in June 1969. Groups agreed to work together and try and compromise but the agreement was a failure for Wilson.

Roy Jenkins

Behind liberal reforms as Home Secretary (e.g. New Race Relations act + end of Capital Punishment). Replaced Callaghan as Chancellor the Exchequer in 1967 and implemented deflationary measures (e.g. Tax increases, controlled govt spending, improving the balance of payments was made a top priority) alongside the pound devaluation that resulted in a boosted and improving economy. By 1969 he succeeded in a balance of payments surplus (this was a large reason for the election being called by Wilson in 1970 as the economy was in a better place). Accelerated Healey’s withdrawal of troops from military bases east of Suez to lower defence spending.

President Johnson

President of America that tried to pressure Wilson into providing English troops for the Vietnam war after it escalated following 1964. He failed in doing so but Wilson gave him moral support in order to maintain a somewhat warm relationship between America and Britain so America continued to give loans to Britain. Johnson faced serious backlash from both Americans and Britons for the Vietnam war - “LBJ how many kids have you killed today”

Ian Smith

President of South Rhodesia, later Rhodesia. In 1965 he issued a unilateral declaration of independence for Rhodesia to grant Rhodesia independence despite it being denied by Britain as Rhodesia refused to adopt majority rule. Was able to maintain independence despite Wilson using oil sanctions and talks (1966+68) to try and pressure Rhodesia into accepting majority rule.

Denis Healey

Minister of Defence under Wilson (1964-70). Started spending cuts to bring down defence budget bellow £2 billion by 1970. One way he did this was though his white paper in 1967 that set a timetable for troops to withdraw gradually from East of Suez into the 1970s as having military bases there was expensive. When Jenkins tried to tighten up on spending after devaluation he accelerated Healey’s withdrawal plans so all troops were to be removed by 1971.