PHIL 360 EXAM

According to the text, what are the 3 core areas of moral philosophy?

1. Value theory

2. Normative ethics

3. Metaethics

What are some of the questions that the area of moral philosophy known as “value theory” includes/asks?

What is the good life?
How do we improve our lot in life?

What is worth pursuing for its own sake?

What is happiness, and is it the very same thing as our well-being?

The question “do the ends justify the means” falls within what area of moral philosophy?

Normative Ethics

The claim that morality is a human invention & therefore not objective falls within which domain?

Metaethics

How is skepticism about morality characterized?

By the denial of proper starting points for ethical reflection

“Conventional morality” is the set of what?

Set of widely accepted rules & principles that members of a culture or society use to govern their own lives & to assess the actions & the motivations of others

What are the central concerns of morality?

Understadning what constitutes a good life, identifying fundamental moral duties, & examining the nature of moral claims

What do principles of law, etiquette, self-interest, tradition, and morality all have in common?

It represents a set of standards for how we ought to behave, ideals to aim for, and rules that we should not break

Can moral actions be illegal? Can illegal actions be moral?

Yes, illegal actions can be moral. Yes, moral actions can be illegal

What kinds of questions fall within the domain of metaethics?

What is the status of moral claims & advice?

Do we always have good reason to do our moral duty?

What kinds of claims fall, or what are some claims that fall, within the domain of value theory?

The only thing that matters in order to live well is to get what you want.

What area of moral philosophy deals w/ questions about what our moral obligations are?

Normative Ethics

What are some plausible starting points for moral thinking discussed in the text?

Friendship is valuable
Justice is a very important moral good

Agony is bad

Children bear less moral responsiblity than adults

What characteristics are true of critical morality?

1. It does not have its origin in social arguments

2. It is untainted by mistaken beliefs, irrationality, or popular prejudices

3. Can serve as the true standard for determoining when conventional morality got it right

According to the text, what is moral skepticism?

Being lax in moral arguments & thinking that no moral views are better than others

The view that an act is morally obligatory just because it is required by God, and that it is immoral just because God forbids it, is known as what?

The Divine Command Theory

Why does the Argument from Religious Authority face difficulties?

Because it’s hard to prove that a specific religious has the correct authority

What does the Divine Perfection Argument claim?

1. If the DCT is true, then a morally perfect God could have created a flawless morality that required us to rape, steal, kill, and forbade us from any acts of kindess or generosity

2. A morally perfect god couldn’t have issued such commands - anyone who did so would be morally imperfect

3. The DCT is false

The DCT falls within wich domain?

Metaethics

According to the Divine Perfection Argument, if the DCT is true, what is also true?

If the DCT is true, then a morally perfect God could have created a flawless morality that required us to rape, steal, kill, and forbade us from any acts of kindess or generosity

In philosophy, what is meant by an argument?

A chain of thought in which reasons are offered in support of a particular conclusion

It is possible for a valid argument to have () premises and a () conclusion

true;false

What argument has the form: “If P, then Q; P; therefore, Q”

Modus ponens

Can a sound argument be invalid?

No

The conclusion of a sound argument will always be what?

True

What argument type has the form “if P, then Q; Q is false; therefore, P is false”?

Modus tollens

What is the best description of the following argument? If the sky is yellow, then grass is pink. The sky is yellow. Therefore, grass is pink.

Valid but unsound

When is an argument logically valid?

If the truth of the premises logically guarantees the truth of the conclusion

What argument type has the form “if P, then Q; if Q, then R; therefore, if P, then R”?

Hypothetical syllogism

What argument type has the form: “if P, then Q; Q; therefore, P is true”?

Fallacy of affirming the consequent

What argument type has the form “if P, then Q; P is false; therefore, Q is false”?

Fallacy of denying the antecedent

A necessary condition is a () and a sufficient condition is a ()

Consequent;antecedent (requirement;guarantee)

Trying to undermine the truth of a position by attacking the person who is advancing it is called what?

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Depicting a position in a way that makes it easy to refute is known as what?

Strawman fallacy

A claim that supplies a condition that is both necessary and sufficient for something is called a what?

Biconditional claim

The sentence “an action is wrong if & only if it causes pain” is an example of a what?

Biconditional claim

Formal fallacies are always what?

Logically invalid

Someone who claims plants & trees are conscious simply bc it hasn’t been proven that they’re not is guilty of making an appeal to what?

Appeal to ignorance

What are some examples of formal fallacies?

If God exists, then abortion is immoral, but she says that God doesn’t exist, abortion is moral

Which fallacy occurs when someone makes a sweeping claim about a group based on only a small handful of cases?

Hasty generalization

What is ethical egoism? What does it theorize?

An action is morally right if & only if it maximizes one’s self-interest
It theorizes that we have no basic obligations to others, only to ourselves

Which of the features of our ordinary moral thinking does ethical egoism disagree with?

Morality requires us to be generous, it counsels us to avoid selfishness

According to the text, what is wrong with the Self-Reliance Argument?

1. The first premise is false bc those who are in need of help would not be better off if others were to neglect them

2. 2nd premise = one that egoists cannot accept. The ultimate duty is to maximize personal benefit

What is the relationship between libertarianism and ethical egoism?

They both give such conflicting advice about morality, they can’t gain support from each other

What is psychological egoism? What does it theorize?

1. The view that our sole motivation is the pursuit of self interest

2. It theorizes that the direct desire to benefit others for their own sake w/ out a motive does not exist

If psychological egoism is true, why can’t we have a duty to be altruistic?

We are not required to do the impossible

What is the relationship between ethical egoism & psychological egoism?

If psychological egoism is true, this supports ethical egoism

To whom do objective moral standards apply?

To everyone, even if people don’t believe that they do

Someone is a relativist if he or she believes what?

Some moral standards are correct, & whether moral claims are true or false

What claim would a relativist not accept?

That there are universal moral truths

If relativism is true, then the moral values of our culture are what?

There is nothing morally wrong about silencing minority views or killing those who hope to expand the rights of minorities

What does relativism imply about iconoclasts who oppose the conventional moral wisdom of a society?

Always be morally mistaken

If relativism doesn’t generate contradictions between the moral beliefs of different cultures, then cross-cultural moral disagreement is what?

If all we do when making moral judgments is to issue sociological reports about what our society stands for, then cross-cultural becomes impossible

If relativism is true, what follows about the morality of racism?

Racism is sometimes good

Which argument is not one of the arguments in favor of error theory?

Argument of expected benefits or moral progress

According to Jeske’s analysis, moral disagreement acorss cultures is what?

Genuine disagreement, but most of it is explained by differences in non-moral beliefs

According to Jeske, if cultural relativism is true, then moral disagreement across cultures is what?

merely apparent

What is not part of the appeal of cultural relativism according to Jeske?

To criticize unjust cultural practices or explain moral progress

According to Jeske, is cultural relativism compatible w/ toleration?

Rejection of cultural relativism does not entail intolerance. But, acceptance of it is incompatible w/ tolerance

Those who accept cultural relativism argue that adhering to a culture-independent moral code encourages what?

It encourages colonialism, violence, & intolerance among cultures

In Kant’s theory, what is a maxim?

A principle of action you give yourself when you are about to do something

According to Kant, an action is morally acceptable if & only if what is the case?

If & only if its maxim is universalizable

Kant claims that the morality of one’s actions depends on what?

Our maxims

What did Kant believe was the connection between rationality & morality?

Consistency

According to Kant, all moral duties are what kind of imperative?

Categorical imperatives

The principle of universalizability does not account for the immorality of whom?

principled fanatics

According to Kant, the main problem w/ the Golden Rule is what?

The Golden Rule doesn’t depend on our desires. If they did then moral rules would fail to apply to everyone, since our desires differ from person to person

Is Kant’s moral theory consistent w/ consequentialism?

Inconsistent

What is a categorical imperative, according to Kant?

A command of reason that requires us to act in a certain way regardless of whether doing so will get us anything we care about

What is a hypothetical imperative, according to Kant?

A command of reason that tells us to do whatever is needed in order to get what we care about

According to the text, what is wrong w/ the principle of universalizability?

It fails to give us an adequate test of fairness

The principle of humanity states what?

Always treat a human being (yourself included) as an end, & never as a mere means

Kant believed that humans have dignity by virtue of their what?

Their rationality & autonomy

To treat someone as an end is to treat them how?

to treat them w/ the respect they deserve

To treat someone as a means is to treat them how?

to treat them so that they can help you achieve their goals

Kant claims that the only thing that can be said to be good “without limitation” is what?

The goodwill

According to Kant, actions have moral worth only if they are done from what?

If they are done w/ the sake of duty

Kant’s 1st formulation of the categorical imperative requires assessing what?

Maxim on which one is acting

Kant’s 2nd formulation of the categorical imperative requires that we treat human beings as what?

Treat human beings as ends in themselves

According to Kant’s theory, is telling a white lie ever permissible?

Morally impermissible

() is a family of ethical theories that include utilitarianism

Consequentialism

Consequentialism states that an action is right if & only if it does what?

If it produces the best overall results

The principle of utility can be summarized as the attempt to maximize what?

The overall amount of well-being in the world

Utilitarians believe that the morality of an action depends on what?

Its actual results

What is the 1 moral rule utilitarians believe in?

Principle of utility

When an action is optimific, it does what?

Produces the best result

What characteristics are & are not attractions of utilitarianism?

Are: ability to justify our moral beliefs

What is the relationship between utilitarianism & consequentialism?

Consequentialism is the broad ethical category claiming that the morality of an action is determined solely by its results, while utilitarianism is a specific version of that theory that identifies "well-being" or "happiness" as the only result that truly matters.

What attitudes do most utilitarians take toward moral rules?

Moral rules can be helpful but can be broken if doing so is optimific

According to utilitarian Jeremy Bentham, what is the relevant question for determining membership in the moral community?

“The question is not, can they reason? nor, can they talk? but, can they suffer?”

What attitude do most utilitarians take toward nonhuman animals?

They argue that they are members of the moral community

Being a member of the moral community means that you are what?

To be important in your own right, be owed a certain amount of respect

Most utilitarians regard the principle of utility as a standard of what?

Rightness

Utilitarians claim what about supererogatory acts?

There are no supererogatory acts, no actions are above & beyond the call of duty

If utilitarianism is true, is it sometimes permissible to give preference to our family members? if so, under what conditions?

It is sometimes permissible but only when it produces the greatest overall well being

A creature that is sentient is able to do what?

1. Feel pleasure & pain

2. have sense experiences

Speciesism is the view that humans, by virtue of () are more morally important than nonhuman animals

Species membership

The Animals Kill Animals Argument makes what claims?

1. If animals kill other animals, then it is morally ok for humans to kill animals

2. Animals do kill other animals. Therefore, it is morally ok for humans to kill animals

Which argument entails that it is generally morally wrong to kill animals?

The Argument from Marginal Cases

What are & are not criticisms of the Animals Kill Animals Argument discussed in the text?

Are: animals that eat other animals have no choice but humans do. Carnivores’s survival depends on eating other animals, human’s dont. None of the animals we eat on a daily basis are carnivores

Not: non-human animals don’t eat meat for pleasure