AP Psychology Key Terms and Phrases - Module 3 & 4

environment

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to personal experiences of the people and things around you

human genome

the complete cellular DNA instructions for human development and function

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

epigenetics

the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

the nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

identical (monozygotic) twins

individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs and shared a prenatal environment; fraternal twins are genetically no more similar than other siblings

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

genes

the biochemical units of heredity

cognitive neuroscience

the study of brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating)

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

consciousness

subjective awareness of self and environment, with an emphasis on cognition, or mental processes

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness; distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. when exposed to light, the SCN reduces melatonin production and reduces sleepiness

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

circadian rhythm

regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

REM bound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

sleepwalking

acting out the nature of one’s dream, including verbalizing or physical behaviors such as kicking or punching

information processing/consolidation dream theory

dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories

physiological function of dreams

regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways

activation synthesis dream theory

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories

cognitive development dream theory

dream content reflects dreamers’ knowledge and understanding. dreams simulate our lives, including worst-case scenarios.

perception

the process by which your brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling you to recognize objects and events as meaningful

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection fifty percent of the time (experienced as a “just noticeable difference”)

Weber’s law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

the decreased sensitivity from constant stimulation

transduction

the conversion of one form of energy into another, particularly, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret

signal detection theory

a theory that predicts how or when you detect the presence of a faint stimulus or signal amid background stimulation or noise (which partly depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness)

sensation

the process by which sensory receptors (nerve endings that respond to stimuli) and the nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as constructing perceptions that draw on experience and expectations

priming

the activation, often unconscious, of certain associations predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

frequency (temporal coding) theory

a hearing theory that explains the sense of pitch; the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency tone

inner ear

contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass in a specific time

place (coding) theory

a hearing theory that links pitch to the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

sensorineural hearing loss

the most common form of hearing loss; caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve

audition

the sense or act of hearing

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea that contains three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum

cochlear implant

a device that converts sounds into electrical signals by stimulating the auditory nerve via the cochlea

cochlea

sound waves travel through this coiled, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; this movement triggers nerve impulses

gate-control theory

a pain theory that specifies the spinal cord as containing a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain via nerve fibers

vestibular sense

sense of balance created by body movement and position

olfaction

sense of smell

kinesthesis

sense of movement that involves sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

gustation

sense of taste

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

inattentive blindness

failing to see visible objects when one’s attention is directed elsewhere

selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentive blindness

perceptual set

gestalt

an organized whole

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth

By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object.

autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. This can involve principles such as proximity, similarity, and closure.

convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows you to judge distance

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. This ability allows us to recognize colors under varying lighting conditions.

convergent thinking

narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution

assimilation

interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas

accommodation

adapting current schemas to incorporate added information

divergent thinking

creatively expanding the number of viable solutions in many directions

cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

prototype

a mental image or primary representative example of a category

metacognition

keeping track of and evaluating mental processes; thinking about thinking

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

concept

mentally grouping similar objects, events, ideas, or people

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports one’s preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a particular problem

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in the same way that was successful in the past

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution, as opposed to strategy-based solutions

heuristic

a quick and simple thinking strategy, or mental shortcut, that allows one to make judgments and solve problems efficiently (can be highly error-prone)

factor analysis

identifying clusters of related items on a test

emotional intelligence

the ability to manage and use emotions