Studied by 3 people
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to personal experiences of the people and things around you
human genome
the complete cellular DNA instructions for human development and function
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
heredity
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
epigenetics
the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change)
natural selection
the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
the nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
identical (monozygotic) twins
individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs and shared a prenatal environment; fraternal twins are genetically no more similar than other siblings
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
genes
the biochemical units of heredity
cognitive neuroscience
the study of brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating)
sequential processing
processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
consciousness
subjective awareness of self and environment, with an emphasis on cognition, or mental processes
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
parallel processing
processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously
sleep
a periodic, natural loss of consciousness; distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. when exposed to light, the SCN reduces melatonin production and reduces sleepiness
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
circadian rhythm
regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
hypnagogic sensations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
REM bound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
sleepwalking
acting out the nature of one’s dream, including verbalizing or physical behaviors such as kicking or punching
information processing/consolidation dream theory
dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories
physiological function of dreams
regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
activation synthesis dream theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories
cognitive development dream theory
dream content reflects dreamers’ knowledge and understanding. dreams simulate our lives, including worst-case scenarios.
perception
the process by which your brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling you to recognize objects and events as meaningful
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection fifty percent of the time (experienced as a “just noticeable difference”)
Weber’s law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
sensory adaptation
the decreased sensitivity from constant stimulation
transduction
the conversion of one form of energy into another, particularly, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret
signal detection theory
a theory that predicts how or when you detect the presence of a faint stimulus or signal amid background stimulation or noise (which partly depends on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness)
sensation
the process by which sensory receptors (nerve endings that respond to stimuli) and the nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time
bottom-up processing
information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as constructing perceptions that draw on experience and expectations
priming
the activation, often unconscious, of certain associations predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
subliminal
below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
frequency (temporal coding) theory
a hearing theory that explains the sense of pitch; the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency tone
inner ear
contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
conduction hearing loss
a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
pitch
a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass in a specific time
place (coding) theory
a hearing theory that links pitch to the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
sensorineural hearing loss
the most common form of hearing loss; caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve
audition
the sense or act of hearing
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea that contains three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum
cochlear implant
a device that converts sounds into electrical signals by stimulating the auditory nerve via the cochlea
cochlea
sound waves travel through this coiled, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; this movement triggers nerve impulses
gate-control theory
a pain theory that specifies the spinal cord as containing a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain via nerve fibers
vestibular sense
sense of balance created by body movement and position
olfaction
sense of smell
kinesthesis
sense of movement that involves sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
gustation
sense of taste
embodied cognition
the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
inattentive blindness
failing to see visible objects when one’s attention is directed elsewhere
selective attention
focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentive blindness
perceptual set
gestalt
an organized whole
perceptual adaptation
the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth
By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object.
autokinetic effect
the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room
stroboscopic movement
an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images
monocular cue
a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. This can involve principles such as proximity, similarity, and closure.
convergence
a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images
binocular cue
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows you to judge distance
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. This ability allows us to recognize colors under varying lighting conditions.
convergent thinking
narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution
assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas
accommodation
adapting current schemas to incorporate added information
divergent thinking
creatively expanding the number of viable solutions in many directions
cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
prototype
a mental image or primary representative example of a category
metacognition
keeping track of and evaluating mental processes; thinking about thinking
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
concept
mentally grouping similar objects, events, ideas, or people
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports one’s preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a particular problem
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in the same way that was successful in the past
insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution, as opposed to strategy-based solutions
heuristic
a quick and simple thinking strategy, or mental shortcut, that allows one to make judgments and solve problems efficiently (can be highly error-prone)
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
emotional intelligence
the ability to manage and use emotions
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Flashcard (41)