ATI SCIENCE REVIEW PT.2

only when im dreaming-minnie riperton

macromolecule

a large and complex molecule composed of smaller subunits called monomers. typically found in biological systems and are vital for various biological processes and functions.

monomer

a small and relatively simple molecule that can chemically bind with others of its kind to form larger more complex molecules. acts as a building block.

polymer

a large molecule made up of repeating subunits called monomers, connected through chemical bonds.

dehydration synthesis

refers to the process of joining monomers together to form a polymer while simultaneously releasing a water molecule as a byproduct. the -OH from one monomer combines with an -H from another monomer, creating a covalent bond.

hydrolysis

the process of breaking down polymers into their constituent monomers by the addition of a water molecule. the water molecule is split into an -OH and an -H, which are added to their respective monomers, breaking the covalent bond between them and separating the monomers.

enzyme

specialized proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions, facilitating and speeding up these reactions without being consumed or permanently altered in the process.

carbohydrates

molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. they serve as a primary source of energy for all living organisms. can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides (3-10 sugar molecules), and polysaccharides (10+, used for energy storage).

glycogen

a long polysaccharide composed of many molecules of the monosaccharide glucose. formed through glycogenesis (a dehydration synthesis), and can be used as energy by being hydrolyzed back into glucose.

starch

polysaccharide composed of glucose units and serves as an energy reserve in plants. it is stored in specialized plant structures called storage organs, such as roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits.

lipids

a diverse group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. they are all hydrophobic, meaning they do not dissolve in water. made up of fatty acids and glycerol, they serve as long-term energy storage, insulation, and protection for organs. can be saturated (only single bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds).

triglycerides

consist of three fatty acid molecules bonded to a glycerol molecule. they serve as a concentrated form of energy storage in the body. they provide insulation and cushioning for organs, and they also serve as a source of fatty acids for energy production

phospholipids

have a glycerol molecule bonded to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. head is hydrophilic and tail is hydrophobic. a major component in cell membranes as they form the phospholipid bilayer.

steroids

have a characteristic structure consisting of four fused carbon rings, with cholesterol being the most common example. they are important components of cell membranes and can be used to synthesize important molecules like hormones, including estrogen and testosterone

waxes

made up of long-chain fatty acids bonded to a long-chain alcohol and have a solid and water-repellent structure. serve as protective coatings on the surface of plants, animals, and certain objects. they help prevent water loss, provide insulation, and offer protection against environmental factors such as heat, cold, and moisture.

proteins

are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of cells and tissues in our bodies. they are made up of long amino acid monomer chains. have a specific three dimensional shape that determines their function. can act as enzymes, antibodies, transport molecules, and perform many other vital roles in the body.

globular proteins

typically soluble in water (hydrophilic) and perform functions such as enzyme catalysis, transport, and signaling. an example is hemoglobin.

fibrous proteins

have long, fiber-like shapes. they are often involved in providing structural support and strength. Collagen, found in connective tissues like skin and tendons, is an example as it maintains the structural integrity of these tissues.

nucleic acids

composed of nucleotides, which consists of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information

DNA

a double-stranded helix that stores genetic information and carries the instructions for building and maintaining an organism. contains nucleotides made up of a deoxyribose sugar, one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine), and a phosphate group

RNA

consists of a single strand of nucleotides. have a structure similar to DNA except that it contains a ribose sugar molecule and uracil instead of thymine. functions as a messenger, translator, and builder in the cell. It helps in the synthesis of proteins, which are essential for various cellular processes. also plays a role in regulating gene expression and controlling cell functions

mRNA

carries the genetic instructions from DNA to the protein-making machinery in the cell

tRNA

brings amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis

rRNA

a crucial component of ribosomes, the cellular machinery where proteins are assembled.

primary structure

refers to a protein’s amino acid sequence in the polypeptide chain. this sequence is determined by the gene encoding the protein and is held together by peptide bonds

secondary structure

involves the initial folding of the polypeptide chain into structures like alpha helices and beta sheets. This folding is primarily stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the backbone atoms of the amino acids

tertiary structure

refers to the complete three-dimensional folding of a single polypeptide chain. This folding is stabilized by various types of bonds and interactions, including hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulphide bonds (between cysteine residues), as well as hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals forces. It results in the unique three-dimensional shape necessary for the protein’s function.

quaternary structure

occurs in proteins that consist of more than one polypeptide chain (subunits). It refers to the arrangement and interaction of these multiple subunits to form a functional protein complex.

FSH

hormone secreted by ant. pituitary gland that helps a follicle (ovum) mature

estrogen and progesterone

secreted as a follicle matures. both work to enlarge the endometrium and supply it with blood vessels to make it ready for potential implantation of a fertilized oocyte. when the concentration of these hormones drops, menstruation occurs.

LH

causes ovulation, whereby the follicle releases the oocyte from the ovary.

hCG

secreted by a blastocyst when fertilization occurs. directs the corpus luteum to survive, enlarge, and continue producing progesterone and estrogen to suppress menstruation.

control group

allow researchers to compare results and minimize the effects of confounding variables. by contrasting outcomes from the experimental group and this group, scientists can isolate the specific impact of the independent variable.