Psychology-Psychopathology

statistical deviation

A method of defining abnormal behaviour by comparing an individual's behaviours or characteristics to the statistical norms of a given population. deviation occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic

deviation from social norms

concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society

failure to function adequately

occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living

deviation from ideal mental health

occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health

phobia

an irrational fear of an object or situation-excessive anxiety out of proportion

behavioural

ways in which people act

emotional

ways in which people feel

cognitive

refers to the process of thinking-knowing, perceiving, believing

behavioural characteristics of phobias

panic-e.g. crying, screaming, running away

avoidance-making conscious effort to avoid coming into contact with phobic stimulus-can make it hard to go about daily life

endurance-sufferer remains in presence of phobic stimulus but continues to experience high levels of anxiety

emotional characteristics of phobias

anxiety-an unpleasant state of high arousal-long term and can be a general response to situation. Diff to fear-strong emotional response directed at phobia itself

emotional responses are unreasonable

cognitive characteristics of phobias

selective attention to the phobic stimulus-if sufferer can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away/all they can focus on

irrational beliefs e.g. social phobias-I must always sound intelligent

cognitive distortions e.g. belly button phobia-finds belly buttons ugly/disgusting

depression

a mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

behavioural characteristics of depression

activity levels-typically reduced levels of energy. some cases=the opposite-psychomotor agitation-struggle to relax, pacing

disruption to sleep and eating behaviour-insomnia, hypersomnia, decrease/increase in appetite

aggression and self-harm-verbally or physically aggressive

emotional characteristics of depression

lowered mood

anger-sometimes extreme, directed at the self or others. can lead to aggressive or self harming behaviour

lowered self-esteem

cognitive characteristics of depression

poor concentration

attending to and dwelling on the negative-paying more attention to the negatives of a situation and having a bias towards recalling unhappy events

absolutist thinking-situations being ‘all-good’ or ‘all-bad’. When a situation is unfortunate they tend to see it as an absolute disaster

OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder)

A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour

behavioural characteristics of OCD

compulsions-compulsions are repetitive and reduce anxiety

aviodance-keeping away from situations that trigger anxiety

emotional characteristics of OCD

anxiety and distress

accompanying depression

guilt and disgust

cognitive characteristics of OCD

obsessive thoughts-thoughts that recur over and over again, usually unpleasant

cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions-e.g. a religious person with obsessive guilt may respond by praying

insight into excessive anxiety-people suffering from OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational. Also tend to be hypervigilant

behavioural approach

A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

classical conditioning

learning by associations. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together -an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment

systematic desensitisation (SD)

A behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning. Involves drawing up a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations related to the phobic stimulus and working through them while maintaining relaxation.

anxiety hierarchy, relaxation, exposure

flooding

A behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus.

cognitive approach

focused on how our mental processes affect behaviour

negative triad

Beck

3 kinds of negative thought that contribute to depression.

negative views of the world, the future and the self

ABC model

Ellis

depression occurs when an activating event (A) triggers an irrational belief (B) which in turn produces a consequence (C)

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)

A method for treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques. Aims to deal with thinking, such as challenging negative thoughts and uses behavioural techniques such as behavioural activation

Irrational thoughts

AKA dysfunctional thoughts.

Ellis-defined as thoughts that are likely to interfere with a person’s happiness. Such dysfunctional thoughts lead to mental disorders such as depression.

Biological approach

A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function.

Genetic explanations

Genes make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring-inherited

Neural explanations

The view that physical and psychological characteristics are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system, in particular the brain as well as individual neurones.

Drug therapy

Treatment involving drugs, i.e. chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or some other body system. In the case of psychological disorders such drugs usually affect neurotransmitter levels.

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor)

an antidepressent

works on the serotonin system in the brain

prevents reuptake of serotonin-increasing serotonin levels in the synapse

Jahoda (1958)

deviation from ideal mental health criteria

-we have no symptoms or distress

-we are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately

-we self-actualise (reach our potential)

-we can cope with stress

-we have a realistic view of the world

-we have good self-esteem and lack guilt

-we are independent of other people

-we can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure

Rosenhan and Seligman (1989)

failure to function adequately-proposed some signs to determine when someone is not coping

-when a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules e.g. maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space

-when a person experiences severe personal distress

-when a person’s behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others

Mowrer (1960)

proposed the two process model based on the behavioural approach to phobias. Phobias are acquired because of classical conditioning and continue because of operant conditioning.

Watson and Rayner (1920)

little albert

created a phobia in a nine month old baby

paired a white rat with the loud noise of banging an iron bar next to his ear

this conditioning then became generalised to other furry objects

Buck (2010)

alternative explanation of phobias

the motivating factor is not anxiety but more positive feelings of safety

explains why some patients with agoraphobia leave the house with a trusted person with relatively little anxiety but not alone

Gilroy et al (2003)

systematic desensitisation

followed up 42 patients who had been treated for arachnophobia in 3 45 minute sessions of SD

arachnophobia assessed using several measures including Spider Questionnaire and response to a spider

control group treated with relaxation without exposure

at both 3 and 33 months SD group were less fearful than the relaxation group

Ougrin (2011)

flooding is highly effective and quicker than alternatives

Beck (1967)

cognitive theory of depression

three parts to cognitive vulnerability that makes you more vulnerable to depression

faulty information processing

negative self-schemas

the negative triad

Ellis (1962)

ABC model

depression is the result of irrational thoughts

CBT: REBT-rational emotive behaviour therapy

extends ABC model to ABCDE

D=dispute

E=effect

vigorous argument between patient and therapist to challenge irrational belief

Grazioli and Terry (2000)

assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth.

Found that those women judged to have been high in cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer post-natal depression

supports idea that depression is linked to faulty information processing, negative self-schemas and cognitive triad of negative automatic thinking

Clark and Beck (1999)

reviewed research on cognitive theories of depression and found there was solid support for cognitive vulnerability factors and cognitions can be seen before depression develops

Jarrett (2013)

very occasionally depressed patients suffer Cotard syndrome, the delusion that they are zombies

shows that Beck’s theory does not explain all aspects of depression-complex symptoms

Lipsky et al (1980)

research evidence to support that by challenging irrational beliefs, a person can reduce their depression

March et al (2007)

compared the effects of CBT with antidepressant drugs and a combination of the two in 327 adolescents with a main diagnosis of depression.

After 36 weeks 81% of the CBT group, 81% of the antidepressants group anf 86%of the combined group were significantly improved

Rosenzweig (1936)

suggested that the difference between different methods of psychotherapy, such as between CBT and systematic desensitisation, might actually be quite small. The shared essential element is the patient-therapist relationship-quality of this determines success rather than any particular technique.

Luborsky et al (2002)

one of many comparative reviews which found very small differences between different psychotherapies which supports the view that having someone to talk to who will listen is what matters most

McCusker et al

cognitive approach to treating depression

risk that because of the emphasis on what is happening in the mind of the individual patient CBT may end up minimising the importance of the circumstances in which a patient is living

Lewis (1936)

biological approach to OCD

observed that of his OCD patients 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD

Taylor (2013)

biological approach to OCD

OCD is polygenic

analysed findings of previous studies and found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD

Nestadt et al (2010)

biological approach to OCD

reviewed previous twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of non-identical twins

Cromer et al (2007)

biological approach to OCD

over half the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in their pasts and that OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma

Cavedini et al (2002)

neural explanation of OCD

study of decision making-showed that these neural systems are the same neural systems that function abnormally in OCD

Soomro et al (2009)

reviewed studies comparing SSRIs to placebos in the treatment of OCD and concluded that all 17 studies showed significantly better results for the SSRIs than for placebo conditions

effectiveness is greatest when combined with a psychological treatment-usually CBT

typically symptoms decline significantly for around 70% of patients taking SSRIs

remaining 30%-alternative drug treatments or combinations of drug treatments may be effective

Goldacre (2013)

one psychologist who said that the evidence favouring drug treatments is biased because the research is sponsored by drug companies who do not report all the evidence