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Humanism

Emphasizes the critical study of Latin and Greek literature to understand human nature, leading to improved education opportunities.

Secularism

Focuses on living for the present rather than the afterlife, a concept prominent during the Renaissance.

Lutheranism

Founded by Martin Luther, it emphasizes salvation through faith, the Bible as the sole truth, and individual interpretation of religious texts.

Edict of Nantes

Issued in 1598, granted religious freedom and allowed Huguenots to practice in certain regions of France.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish King who fought for Protestants and died after being hit by a cannon.

Philip II (Spain)

Spanish monarch who sent the Spanish Armada to restore Catholicism in England, leading to its defeat.

William of Orange

Led the Glorious Revolution in England with Mary of Orange, establishing a constitutional monarchy.

Louis XIV

Absolutist French monarch known as the "Sun King," revoked the Edict of Nantes and built the Palace of Versailles.

Peter the Great

Russian Tsar who modernized and westernized Russia through reforms and built St. Petersburg.

Maria Theresa (Austria)

Enlightened despot who modernized the army and promoted commerce in Austria.

Newton

Formulated the laws of universal gravitation and calculus, contributing to the understanding of the universe.

Voltaire

Enlightenment writer who advocated for freedom of religion and speech, known for his work "Candide."

Moravian Pietists

Inspired spiritual counseling movement

Beethoven

First great romantic composer, used contrasting themes to convey deep emotion

Louis Philippe

Replaced Charles X, favored wealthy elites, led to a popular revolt

Karl Marx

Founder of Marxist socialism and Communism, believed in eternal struggle between classes

Darwin

Theory of evolution, species evolve and adapt over time

Lenin

Leader of Bolsheviks, led Bolshevik Revolution, based on Karl Marx's ideas

Stalin

Leader after Lenin, established totalitarian dictatorship in Russia

Picasso

Famous Cubist painter

Gorbachev

Led peaceful end of Cold War, introduced Glasnost and Perestroika

Serfdom

Tenant farmer bound to hereditary land, close to slavery in medieval Europe

Oligarchies

Small group controlling an organization or country

Italian Renaissance

Cultural movement in Italy, marked by revival of art, literature, and learning

Black Death

Plague in Europe in 1347, killed a third of the population

Vernacular

Writing or speaking in the local language, not Latin

Utopia

Perfect society concept, as in Thomas More's book

Reconquista

Military campaign to liberate Spanish territories from Muslims

Conversos

New Christians, also known as Conversos

Inquisition

Official Roman Catholic agency meant to combat doctrinal heresy, established by Pope Paul III in 1542.

Lollards

Followers of John Wycliffe, advocating for reforms within Christianity and challenging the authority of the Roman Catholic Church.

Ottoman Empire

Powerful Islamic state that emerged in Anatolia in the late 13th century, known for its expansion, administration, cultural achievements, and decline.

95 Theses

Martin Luther's document criticizing the corruption of the Catholic Church, particularly denouncing indulgences.

Jesuits

Founded by Ignatius of Loyola, the Jesuits were initially a military branch of the Catholic Church, later focusing on education and combating Protestantism.

Ursulines

Catholic religious order founded by St. Angela Merici, dedicated to the Christian education of girls and known for their educational work across Europe and North America.

Habsburgs

Powerful European dynasty spanning multiple centuries, known for their extensive territories and notable figures like Charles V and Maria Theresa.

Court of Star Chamber

English court operating from the late 15th to mid-17th centuries, known for its secret proceedings and controversial practices.

United Provinces

Confederation of provinces in the Low Countries, known for its Golden Age, religious tolerance, and eventual decline.

House of Commons

One of the chambers of the UK Parliament, composed of elected Members of Parliament responsible for legislation, executive oversight, and financial matters.

Franchise

Franchisees pay fees for trademarks, marketing, and support services from franchisors.

Rapid Business Expansion

Franchising leverages independent franchisees for quick growth with minimal capital.

Common Franchise Types

Fast-food, retail, hotels, and service-based businesses are typical franchise examples.

Franchise Benefits

Brand recognition, business practices, training, and support are advantages for franchisees.

Dutch East India Company

VOC was a powerful Dutch trading corporation in the 17th century.

VOC Trade

VOC traded spices, textiles, and more between Europe and Asia.

VOC Colonial Expansion

VOC established colonies in Asia to protect trade interests.

VOC Decline

Corruption and competition led to the dissolution of VOC in 1799.

Black Atlantic

Cultural, social, and historical experiences of African descent in the Atlantic world.

Border Theory

Analyzes social, cultural, political dynamics of borders and borderlands.

Laissez-faire

Economic doctrine promoting unrestricted private enterprise without government interference.

St

Major Russian city known for history, culture, and architecture.

Potatoes

Crucial staple food crop in history, aiding population growth and causing the Irish Famine.

Chartists

19th-century British working-class movement advocating political and social reform.

Tories

British political faction supporting monarchy and traditional institutions.

Whigs

British political faction opposing absolute monarchy and supporting parliamentary supremacy.

Foundling Hospitals

Charitable institutions caring for abandoned or orphaned children in the 18th century.

English Civil War

17th-century conflict between Royalists and Parliamentarians in England.

Enclosure

Process of consolidating land formerly shared by peasant farmers.

Open Field System

Medieval communal farming method with large unenclosed fields divided into strips.

Putting Out System

Merchants loaned materials to home workers in the cottage industry.

Navigation Acts

Cromwell-enforced laws requiring English goods to be transported on English ships.

Estates General

Pre-revolutionary French representative assembly with three estates.

Reign of Terror

Period of violence during the French Revolution led by the Committee of Public Safety.

Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution (1793-1794) characterized by extreme violence, mass executions, and political purges led by the radical Jacobins, notably Maximilien Robespierre.

National Assembly

A revolutionary assembly formed during the French Revolution in 1789, primarily representing the Third Estate, central in drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and enacting reforms.

Concert of Europe

A diplomatic cooperation system among major European powers post-Napoleonic Wars to maintain stability, led by Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia.

Treaty of Vienna

Signed in 1815, reshaped Europe post-Napoleonic Wars, aimed at restoring stability, establishing a balance of power, and promoting the principle of legitimacy.

Nation-states

Political entities where state boundaries align with the nation, emerged in the 19th century due to nationalism, decolonization, and the decline of empires.

Proletariat

Working class selling labor for wages, historically associated with Marxist theory and pivotal in labor movements for workers' rights.

Bolsheviks

Faction led by Lenin advocating for a socialist state, central in the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the foundation of the Soviet Union.

Mensheviks

Moderate faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, opposing Bolsheviks' revolutionary tactics.

Communism in One Country

Stalin's policy focusing on building socialism within the Soviet Union rather than international revolution.

Peace, Bread, Land!

Bolshevik slogan during the Russian Revolution of 1917, encapsulating demands for peace, end to food shortages, and land redistribution.

Anschluss

Annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in 1938, violating international agreements and reflecting Hitler's expansionist ambitions.

Containment

U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War to prevent the spread of communism, implemented through economic aid, military assistance, and alliances.

Brinkmanship

U.S. foreign policy strategy during the Cold War, involving confrontational stances against the Soviet Union.

Détente

Period of improved U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold War, aimed at reducing tensions through diplomatic negotiations and arms control agreements.

Iron Curtain

Metaphorical and physical division between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War, symbolizing the divide between communist and capitalist blocs.

Glasnost

Gorbachev's policy in the 1980s promoting openness and transparency in the Soviet Union.

Perestroika

Gorbachev's reforms in the 1980s aiming to restructure the Soviet economy and political system.

Berlin Wall

Barrier constructed in 1961 to divide East and West Berlin during the Cold War, symbolizing the ideological divide and fell in 1989, marking the end of the Cold War.

Avignon Papacy

Period when the Popes resided in Avignon, France, living luxuriously, leaving Italy popeless.

Council of Trent

20-year council aiming to reform the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation.

Conciliarism

Theory advocating general church councils' supremacy over the papacy in church matters.

Protestant Reformation

16th-century movement leading to the split in Western Christianity and the emergence of Protestantism.

Counter-Reformation

Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation, aiming to combat Protestantism and reform the Church.

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

Decree asserting the Gallican Church's independence from papal authority in France.

Edict of Nantes

Document granting religious tolerance to Huguenots in France, ending the French Wars of Religion.

Thirty Years' War

Devastating conflict in Europe from 1618 to 1648, primarily in the Holy Roman Empire.

Peace of Westphalia

Treaty ending the Thirty Years' War, establishing state sovereignty and religious tolerance.

Great European Witch Hunt

Intense persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft in Europe during the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

Capture of Constantinople

Conquest of the Byzantine capital by the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

English Civil War

Series of conflicts and political upheavals in England from 1642 to 1651.

English Civil War Causes

Tensions between King Charles I and Parliament over taxation, religion, and royal authority led to conflicts between Royalists and Parliamentarians.

English Civil War Outcome

Parliamentarians, led by Oliver Cromwell, won, abolishing the monarchy and establishing the Commonwealth, later restored in 1660.

Siege of Vienna (1683)

Ottoman Empire's unsuccessful siege of Vienna lifted by a Christian army led by King John III Sobieski, halting Ottoman expansion into Europe.

Pugachev’s Rebellion

Major Russian uprising against imperial rule in the 1770s led by Yemelyan Pugachev, suppressed due to grievances against serfdom and oppressive policies.

Partition of Poland

Division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by neighboring powers (Russia, Prussia, Austria) in 1772, 1793, and 1795, leading to Poland's disappearance from the map.

Seven Years' War Causes

Fueled by colonial rivalries, territorial disputes, and dominance struggles among major European powers.

Seven Years' War Outcome

Ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, reshaping global power dynamics with Britain emerging as a dominant colonial power.