AP Psych Midterm

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Empirical Evidence

Information gained from observation or experimentation.

Confirmation Bias

Looking for information that supports what you already believe.

Hindsight Bias

Thinking you “knew it all along” after something happens.

Overconfidence

Being more confident than correct.

Scientific Method

Orderly process for asking questions and testing ideas.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction.

Falsifiable

Can be proven wrong through evidence.

Mental Processes

Internal thoughts and feelings that cannot be directly observed.

Validity

Measures what it’s supposed to measure.

Peer Review

Other experts evaluate a study before publication.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if results are consistent.

Reliability

Produces consistent results each time.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

Organization setting research and ethical guidelines.

Research Design

Plan for how a study will be conducted.

Methodology

Specific procedures used in research.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data.

Survey Technique

Method of collecting self-reported information from people.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive, non-numerical data.

Likert Scale

Rating scale (ex: strongly agree → strongly disagree).

Structured Interviews

Set list of questions asked the same way each time.

Wording Effect

How question phrasing changes responses.

Social Desirability Bias

People give answers they think look good.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment.

Case Study

In-depth study of one person or small group.

Correlation Coefficient

Number showing strength and direction of a relationship.

Correlational Research

Studies relationships, but does NOT show cause and effect.

Third Variable Problem

Another factor may explain the relationship.

Scatterplot

Graph showing two variables and their relationship.

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Experimental Method

Only method that shows cause and effect.

Independent Variable

The variable the researcher changes.

Experimental Group

Receives the treatment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured.

Confounding Variable

Outside factor that affects results.

Operational Definitions

Precise definitions of variables for replication.

Control Group

Does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

Random Assignment

Each participant has an equal chance of being in any group.

Placebo Effect

People improve because they expect to, not because of treatment.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher unintentionally influences results.

Sample

Participants in a study.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don’t know which group they’re in.

Double-Blind Study

Both researchers and participants don’t know group assignments.

Placebo Condition

Group that receives a fake treatment.

Representative Sample

Sample that reflects the population.

Random Sample

Everyone in population has an equal chance of selection.

Sample Bias

Sample is not representative of the population.

Generalizability

How well results apply to the larger population.

Measure of Central Tendency

Mean, median, and mode.

Statistics

Methods used to analyze data.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarize data (mean, median, mode).

Inferential Statistics

Decide if results apply to a larger population.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores.

Negative Skew

Long tail on the left.

Positive Skew

Long tail on the right.

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped distribution.

Regression to Mean

Extreme scores move closer to average on retesting.

Standard Deviation

How spread out the scores are.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores below a specific score.

Bimodal Distribution

Two common scores instead of one.

Confederates

People in a study secretly working for the researcher.

Defensible Claim

A claim supported by evidence.

Debriefing

Explaining the study to participants afterward.

Evolutionary Perspective

Viewing behavior in terms of survival and adaptation.

Natural Selection

Traits that help survival are more likely to be passed on.

Nature

Behavior and traits from genetics.

Nurture

Behavior and traits from environment.

Genetic Predisposition

Probability of developing traits or disorders due to genes.

Lobes of the Brain

Main regions of the cerebral cortex (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).

Eugenics

Discredited beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population

Cerebral Cortex

Outer layer of the brain; controls thinking and processing.

Association Areas

Parts of the cortex that integrate information.

Frontal Lobe

Thinking, planning, problem-solving, movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

Decision-making and personality.

Executive Functioning

Planning, organizing, and managing behavior.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Temporal Lobes

Process sound, memory, and speech.

Parietal Lobes

Process touch, pressure, temperature, and spatial orientation.

Somatosensory Cortex

Registers touch, pain, and body position.

Occipital Lobes

Process visual information.

Corpus Callosum

Connects left and right hemispheres.

Brainstem

Controls automatic functions like breathing and heartbeat.

Medulla

Controls heart rate and breathing.

Reticular Activating System

Regulates alertness and attention.

Thalamus

Brain’s relay station for senses.

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement and balance.

Limbic System

Controls emotions and drives.

Reward Center

Brain area that produces pleasure.

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis; regulates hunger, thirst, and temperature.

Pituitary Gland

Master gland that controls other hormones.

Hippocampus

Processes new memories.

Amygdala

Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary body functions.

Nervous System

Network of cells transmitting signals throughout the body.

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves outside the CNS.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates “fight or flight” responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body after stress.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements.