AP Psych Final Study Guide

psych, yikes

learned helplessness

feeling powerless due to repeated exposure to uncontrollable events

learned helplessness

associated with an external locus of control.

observational learning

learning by watching others

modeling

imitating the behavior of a model

albert bandura

theorized social learning theory with his bobo doll experiment

bobo doll experiment

children imitated observed aggressive behavior

classical conditioning terms

extinction, generalization, spontaneous recovery, stimulus discrimination

extinction

the conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

generalization

responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of an extinguished response after rest

stimulus discrimination

distinguishing between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli

ivan pavlov

studied classical conditioning

albert bandura

studied social learning theory

edward thorndike

studied law of effect

bf skinner

studied operant conditioning

fear

can be classically conditioned

little albert experiment

a child was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise

continuous reinforcement

reward every time (teaching dog sitting)

partial reinforcement

variable ratio/interval (maintain dog knowing how to sit)

positive reinforcement

add something pleasant

negative reinforcement

remove something unpleasant

positive punishment

add something unpleasant

negative punishment

remove something pleasant

unconditioned stimulus (US)

triggers a natural response

unconditioned response (UR)

natural reaction to US

neutral stimulus (NS)

doesn’t trigger a response initially

conditioned stimulus (CS)

was NS, now triggers response after learning

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to CS

associative learning

learning that two events are connected (stimulus-stimulus or behavior-consequence), applies to both classical and operant conditioning

latent learning

learning occurs but isn’t shown until incentives (like rats in maze w/o reward but navigates quick w/ food introduction)

punishment

can cause fear, aggression, or resentment

positive reinforcement

rewarding positive behaviors is better for shaping behavior

primary reinforcers

satisfy biological needs

secondary reinforcers

learned rewards

biological predispositions

some behaviors are easier to learn due to biology

insight

sudden realization of a solution

operant conditioning

focuses on the consequences of actions

shaping

teaching by reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior

reinforcement schedules

fixed/variable ratio/interval

fixed ratio

reward after a set number of actions

variable ratio

reward after an unpredictable number of actions

fixed interval

reward after a set time

variable interval

reward after unpredictable time intervals

variable ratio

mots effective reinforcement schedules

independent variable (IV)

factor manipulated by the researcher (cause)

dependent variable (DV)

factor measured, depending on the IV (effect)

experimental research

research method with most control as it manipulates variables and uses random assignment

random assignment

ensures groups are created by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences and increasing validity (unbiased)

correlation coefficient (coco)

measures strength and direction of a relationship (-1 to +1)

stronger coco

closer to + or - 1

weaker coco

closer to 0

positive coco

both variables increase together

negative coco

one increases, other decreases

scatter plot

graph showing data points to visualize relationships

positive correlation

variables move in the same direction

negative correlation

variables move in opposite directions

research methods

non experimental :surveys, case studies, naturalistic observation, meta-analysis, correlation
experimental: experiments

nonexperimental research

descriptive with no variable manipulation

experimental research

manipulates variables and uses random assignment to determine cause and effect

ethical guidelines

informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, protection from harm

informed consent

participates must agree after being fully informed

confidentiality

protect participant data and identities

debriefing

explain the study afterward, especially if deception was used

protection from harm

minimize risks

random sampling

selecting participants randomly for generalizability

random assignemnt

assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias

placebo

fake treatment given to control groups

placebo effect

changes occur because participants believe they received the treatment

framing

how information is presented affects decisions

effortful processing

requires attention and effort

automatic processing

happens unconsciously

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory lasting 3-4 seconds

iconic memory

visual sensory memory lasting .5 seconds

retroactive interference

new information interferes with old memories

proactive interference

old information interferes with learning new information

PORN

proactive old retroactive new (mnemonic)

brocas area

speech production

wernickes area

language comprehension

aphasia

language impairment

brocas aphasia

trouble speaking, comprehension intact

wernickes aphasia

fluent but nonsensical speech, poor comprehension

convergent thinking

finding one correct solution

divergent thinking

generating multiple ideas or solutions

serial position effect

we remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than the middle

primacy effect

remembering things at the beginning of lists better

recency effect

remembering things at the end of lists better

mental set

using the same problem-solving approach repeatedly

fixation

inability to see a problem from a new perspective

short term memory (STM)

temporary, holds 7 items

long term memory (LTM)

permanent storage (includes procedural, semantic, and episodic memory)

procedural memory

skills

semantic memory

facts

episodic memories

personal experiences

groupthink

desire for harmony leads to poor decisions

group polarization

group discussions strengthen existing opinions

informational social influence

conforming to gain accurate information

normative social information

conforming to fit in or gain approval

scapegoat theory

blaming others for personal problems

prejudice

preconceived negative attitudes toward a group

just world phenomenon

belief that people get what they deserve