AP Psych Final Study Guide
1. What is learned helplessness? Which do we associate it with: external or internal locus of control?
Learned helplessness occurs when an individual learns to feel powerless or unable to avoid negative situations due to repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.
It is associated with an external locus of control because the person believes they lack control over their circumstances and outcomes.
2. What is observational learning? Modeling? What psychologist do we associate with these ideas? What is his theory called? What was the experiment?
Observational learning: Learning by watching others.
Modeling: The process of imitating the behavior of a model.
Psychologist: Albert Bandura
Theory: Social Learning Theory
Experiment: Bobo Doll Experiment, where children observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a doll. Those who observed aggression were more likely to replicate aggressive behavior.
3. What is extinction/generalization/spontaneous recovery/stimulus discrimination? Which type of conditioning?
These terms are associated with classical conditioning (though some apply to operant conditioning too):
Extinction: When the conditioned response decreases after the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Generalization: When a response is elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.
Stimulus discrimination: The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli.
4. What psychologist do we associate with...
Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura
Law of Effect: Edward Thorndike
Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
5. Can fear be classically conditioned? Can you think of an example?
Yes, fear can be classically conditioned.
Example: The Little Albert Experiment by John Watson. A child was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, frightening noise.
6. What type of reinforcement schedule would you use to get a dog to sit? Once it knows the trick?
To teach the dog: Continuous reinforcement (reward every time the behavior is performed).
Once it knows the trick: Partial reinforcement (e.g., variable ratio or variable interval schedules) to maintain the behavior over time.
7. Positive/negative reinforcement, positive/negative punishment: Which increases behavior? Which decreases behavior?
Increases behavior:
Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus (e.g., giving candy for good grades).
Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., turning off an alarm after waking up).
Decreases behavior:
Positive punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., giving a speeding ticket).
Negative punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy).
8. US, UR, NS, CS, CR: Be able to identify in scenarios
US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
UR (Unconditioned Response): Natural reaction to the US (e.g., salivation).
NS (Neutral Stimulus): Does not initially trigger a response (e.g., bell before conditioning).
CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Previously NS, now triggers a response after conditioning (e.g., bell).
CR (Conditioned Response): Learned reaction to the CS (e.g., salivation to the bell).
9. What is meant by associative learning? Does it apply to both CC and OC?
Associative learning: Learning that two events are linked (e.g., stimulus-stimulus or behavior-consequence).
Applies to both classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
10. What is latent learning? Can you think of an example?
Latent learning: Learning that is not immediately expressed in behavior until there is an incentive.
Example: A rat exploring a maze without reinforcement later navigates it quickly when food is introduced.
11. Dangers of punishment? Is it better to punish or reward? What do psychologists suggest for shaping behavior?
Dangers of punishment:
May cause fear, resentment, or aggression.
Focuses on what not to do rather than teaching correct behavior.
Psychologists suggest rewarding desired behaviors (positive reinforcement) over punishment to shape behavior.
12. Primary vs. Secondary reinforcers?
Primary reinforcers: Innate, satisfy biological needs (e.g., food, water, sex).
Secondary reinforcers: Learned, associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, applause).
We work for money (secondary) because it allows us to acquire primary reinforcers.
13. Biological predispositions?
Some behaviors are biologically easier for species to learn due to evolution.
Example: You can’t teach a fish to climb a tree or a cat to bark because these behaviors go against their natural inclinations.
14. What is insight learning? Can you think of an example?
Insight learning: Sudden realization of a solution without trial and error.
Example: A pigeon using a tool to solve a problem after thinking it through.
15. What type of learning focuses on the consequences of choices and actions? CC? OC?
Operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of behavior.
16. What is shaping? How do you teach complex behaviors?
Shaping: Gradually teaching a behavior by reinforcing successive approximations.
Example: To train a dog to fetch, first reward picking up the toy, then carrying it, and finally bringing it to you.
17. Examples of reinforcement schedules. Which is most effective?
Fixed ratio: Reward after a set number of behaviors (e.g., a bonus after every 10 sales).
Variable ratio: Reward after an unpredictable number of behaviors (e.g., gambling).
Fixed interval: Reward after a set time (e.g., weekly paycheck).
Variable interval: Reward after unpredictable time intervals (e.g., random pop quizzes).
Variable ratio is most effective at maintaining repeated behaviors.
18. Generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction (Classical Conditioning)
Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.
Stimulus discrimination: Distinguishing between the CS and other stimuli.
Extinction: Gradual weakening of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the US.
Review questions:
1. Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable (IV): The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher (cause).
Dependent Variable (DV): The factor being measured, which depends on the IV (effect).
Example: In a study on sleep and test performance, IV = hours of sleep, DV = test scores.
2. Research with Most Control
Experimental research gives scientists the most control because they manipulate variables and use random assignment to control confounding variables.
3. Why is Random Assignment Important?
Ensures participants are assigned to groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between groups, and increasing the validity of the results.
4. Correlation Coefficient
A numerical measure (-1 to +1) that shows the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
Stronger correlation: Closer to ±1.
Weaker correlation: Closer to 0.
Positive (+): Both variables increase together.
Negative (-): One variable increases, the other decreases.
Scatter Plot: A graph showing data points to visualize relationships between variables.
5. Positive vs. Negative Correlation
Positive correlation: Variables move in the same direction (e.g., hours studied and grades).
Negative correlation: Variables move in opposite directions (e.g., stress level and quality of sleep).
6. Weak Correlation
A weak correlation is closer to 0 (e.g., 0.1 or -0.2). Stronger correlations are closer to ±1.
7. Types of Research Methods
Nonexperimental methods: Descriptive research like surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observation. No variable manipulation.
Experimental method: Involves manipulating variables and random assignment to determine cause and effect.
8. Ethical Guidelines
Informed consent: Participants must be fully informed and agree to participate.
Confidentiality: Protect participants’ identities and data.
Debriefing: Explain the study afterward, especially if deception was used.
Protection from harm: Minimize physical or psychological risks.
9. Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment
Random Sampling: Selecting participants randomly from a population for generalizability.
Random Assignment: Randomly assigning participants to groups in an experiment to ensure equal conditions.
Importance: Reduces bias and ensures data is representative and valid.
10. Placebo and Placebo Effect
Placebo: A harmless substance or fake treatment given to control groups.
Placebo Effect: When participants experience changes because they believe they received the treatment.
11. Framing
How information is presented affects decision-making (e.g., "90% survival rate" vs. "10% death rate").
12. Effortful vs. Automatic Processing
Effortful: Requires attention and conscious effort (e.g., studying).
Automatic: Happens unconsciously and without effort (e.g., recognizing a face).
13. Echoic and Iconic Memories
Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory (lasts ~3-4 seconds).
Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory (lasts ~0.5 seconds).
Both are part of sensory memory (SM).
14. Retroactive vs. Proactive Interference
Retroactive: New information interferes with old memories.
Proactive: Old information interferes with learning new information.
15. Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area
Broca’s area: Speech production.
Wernicke’s area: Language comprehension.
Aphasia: Language impairment.
Broca’s aphasia: Difficulty speaking but comprehension intact.
Wernicke’s aphasia: Fluent but nonsensical speech with poor comprehension.
16. Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking
Convergent: Focuses on finding a single correct solution.
Divergent: Generates multiple solutions or creative ideas.
17. Serial Position Effect
Tendency to recall items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list better than the middle.
18. Mental Set and Fixation
Mental set: Tendency to approach problems the same way repeatedly.
Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, which limits problem-solving.
19. Types of Memory
STM (Short-Term Memory): Holds info temporarily (~7 items).
LTM (Long-Term Memory): Permanent storage.
Types: Procedural (skills), semantic (facts), episodic (personal experiences).
20. Groupthink vs. Group Polarization
Groupthink: Desire for harmony leads to poor decisions.
Group Polarization: Group discussions strengthen the group’s prevailing opinions.
21. Informational vs. Normative Social Influence
Informational: Conforming to gain accurate information.
Normative: Conforming to fit in or gain approval.
22. Scapegoat Theory, Prejudice, and Just World Phenomenon
Scapegoat theory: Blaming others for personal problems.
Prejudice: Preconceived negative attitudes toward a group.
Just World Phenomenon: Belief that people get what they deserve, justifying prejudice.
23. Blaming the Victim and Just World Phenomenon
Blaming the victim supports the just world phenomenon by assuming the victim is responsible for their misfortune.
24. Social Loafing
Reduced effort when working in a group. More likely in large groups or when individual contributions are not measured.
25. Cognitive Dissonance
Discomfort from conflicting beliefs and behaviors. People usually change their attitudes to resolve it.
26. Ingroup vs. Outgroup Bias
Preference for ingroup (our group) over outgroup (others).
27. Bystander Effect and Diffusion of Responsibility
Bystander Effect: Less likely to help in a group.
Diffusion of Responsibility: Belief that others will take action.
28. Foot-in-the-Door vs. Door-in-the-Face
Foot-in-the-door: Start with a small request, then escalate.
Door-in-the-face: Start with a large request, then scale down.
29. Superordinate Goals
To get groups to work together, give them shared goals that require cooperation.
30. Deindividuation
Loss of self-awareness in groups (e.g., anonymity, masks). Leads to impulsive behavior.
31. Fight or Flight
Triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the body (e.g., increased heart rate). The parasympathetic nervous system calms it afterward.
32. Brain Scans
fMRI: Tracks active brain regions.
MRI: Detailed brain structure.
EEG: Measures electrical brain activity.
CAT: X-ray images of the brain.
Best for monitoring activity: fMRI.
33. Split-Brain Patients
If the image is flashed in the left visual field: They can’t name it but can draw it.
If the image is flashed in the right visual field: They can name it.
34. Neurotransmitters and Disorders
Schizophrenia: Dopamine excess.
Alzheimer’s: Acetylcholine deficit.
Parkinson’s: Dopamine deficit.
35. PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)
Sympathetic: Activates fight or flight.
Parasympathetic: Slows down, restores calm.
36. Brain Lobes
Frontal: Thinking, planning, motor control.
Parietal: Sensory processing.
Temporal: Hearing and memory.
Occipital: Vision.
37. Amygdala
Regulates emotions, especially fear and aggression.