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Antipositivism
The view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity in representing social processes, cultural norms, and societal values.
Conflict theory
A theory viewing society as a competition for limited resources.
Constructivism
An extension of symbolic interaction theory suggesting that reality is constructed by humans.
Culture
A group's shared practices, values, and beliefs.
Dramaturgical analysis
Viewing society as a theatrical performance.
Dynamic equilibrium
A stable state where all parts of society work together properly.
Dysfunctions
Undesirable consequences of social patterns.
Figuration
Simultaneously analyzing individual behavior and societal influences.
Function
The role of a recurrent activity in social life and structural continuity.
Functionalism
Seeing society as a structure meeting individuals' needs.
Generalized others
The organized attitude of a social group.
Grand theories
Attempts to explain large-scale relationships and fundamental societal questions.
Hypothesis
A testable proposition.
Latent functions
Unintended consequences of a social process.
Macro-level
A broad view of social structures in society.
Manifest functions
Intended consequences of a social process.
Micro-level theories
Studying specific relationships between individuals or small groups.
Paradigms
Philosophical frameworks used to formulate theories in a discipline.
Positivism
Scientific study of social patterns.
Qualitative sociology
Using in-depth interviews and analysis of content sources for data.
Quantitative sociology
Using statistical methods like surveys for data collection.
Reification
Treating abstract concepts as having real existence.
Significant others
Specific individuals impacting a person's life.
Social facts
Laws, morals, values, and customs governing social life.
Social institutions
Patterns of beliefs and behaviors meeting social needs.
Social solidarity
Ties binding a group together.
Society
People in a defined area interacting and sharing a common culture.
Sociological imagination
Understanding personal past in relation to societal structures.
Sociology
Systematic study of society and social interaction.
Symbolic interactionism
Examining individuals' relationships through communication.
Theory
Proposed explanation of social interactions or society.
Verstehen
German term for deep understanding.
Elite Theory
The theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration.
Laissez-faire Leader
A hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions.
Leadership Function
The main focus or goal of a leader.
Leadership Style
The style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members.
McDonaldization of Society
The increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions.
Meritocracy
A bureaucracy where membership and advancement are based on merit—proven and documented skills.
Normative or Voluntary Organizations
Organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards.
Out-group
A group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with.
Primary Groups
Small, informal groups of people who are closest to us.
Reference Groups
Groups to which an individual compares herself.
Secondary Groups
Larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time-limited.
Total Institution
An organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs.
Triad
A three-member group.
Utilitarian Organizations
Organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need.
Conflict Theory
A theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance.
Control Theory
A theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society.
Corporate Crime
Crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment.
Corrections System
The system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses.
Court
A system that has the authority to make decisions based on law.
Crime
A behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions.
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