antipositivism

the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values

conflict theory

a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources

constructivism

an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be

culture

a group's shared practices, values, and beliefs

dramaturgical analysis

a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance

dynamic equilibrium

a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly

dysfunctions

social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society

figuration

the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior

function

the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity

functionalism

a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society

generalized others

the organized and generalized attitude of a social group

grand theories

an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change

hypothesis

a testable proposition

latent functions

the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process

macro-level

a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society

manifest functions

sought consequences of a social process

micro-level theories

the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups

paradigms

philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them

positivism

the scientific study of social patterns

qualitative sociology

in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data

quantitative sociology

statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants

reification

an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence

significant others

specific individuals that impact a person's life

social facts

the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life

social institutions

patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs

social solidarity

the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion

society

a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture

sociological imagination

the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular

sociology

the systematic study of society and social interaction

symbolic interactionism

a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)

theory

a proposed explanation about social interactions or society

verstehen

a German word that means to understand in a deep way
accuracy

using a tool makes the measuring more precise.

case study

in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual

code of ethics

a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology

content analysis

applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand

correlation

when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation

debunking

looking beyond the obvious to expose falseness by examining merit, logic, and evidence.

dependent variables

a variable changed by other variables

empirical evidence

evidence that comes from direct observations, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation

ethnography

participating and observing thinking and behavior in a social setting

experiment

the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions

field research

gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey

Hawthorne effect

when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher

hypothesis

a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables

independent variables

variables that cause changes in dependent variables

interpretive framework

a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing

interview

a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject

literature review

a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research

nonreactive research

using secondary data, does not include direct contact with research subjects and does not alter or influence people’s behaviors

operational definitions

specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study

participant observation

when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective

population

a defined group serving as the subject of a study

primary data

data that are collected directly from firsthand experience

qualitative data

non-numerical, descriptive data that is often subjective and based on what is experienced in a natural setting

quantitative data

data collected in numerical form that can be counted and analyzed using statistics

random sample

a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population

reliability

a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced

samples

small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population

scientific method

an established scholarly research that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a data collection method, gathering data, and drawing conclusions

secondary data analysis

using data collected by others and applying new interpretations

surveys

collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about thinking, behaviors, and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire

validity

the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study

value neutrality

a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results
beliefs

tenets or convictions that people hold to be true

countercultures

groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies

culture

shared beliefs, values, and practices

culture lag

the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it

diffusion

the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another

discoveries

things and ideas found from what already exists

ethnocentrism

the evaluation and judgment of another culture based on one’s own cultural norms

folkways

direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture

formal norms

established, written rules

globalization

the integration of international trade and finance markets

high culture

the cultural patterns of a society’s elite

ideal culture

the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to

informal norms

casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to

innovations

new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time

inventions

a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms

language

a symbolic system of communication

mores

the moral views and principles of a group

norms

the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured

popular culture

mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population

real culture

the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists

sanctions

a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the way that people understand the world based on their form of language

social control

a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms

society

people who live in a definable community and who share a culture

subcultures

groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society

symbols

gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture

values

a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
achieved status

the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income

agricultural societies

societies that rely on farming as a way of life

alienation

an individual’s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self

anomie

a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness

ascribed status

the status outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race

bourgeoisie

the owners of the means of production in a society

capitalism

a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government

class consciousness

the awareness of one’s rank in society

collective conscience

the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society

false consciousness

a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person’s own best interest

feudal societies

societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection

habitualization

the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit

horticultural societies

societies based around the cultivation of plants

hunter-gatherer societies

societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival

industrial societies

societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods

information societies

societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services

institutionalization

the act of implanting a convention or norm into society

iron cage

a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions

looking-glass self

our reflection of how we think we appear to others

mechanical solidarity

a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture

organic solidarity

a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences

pastoral societies

societies based around the domestication of animals

proletariat

the laborers in a society

rationalization

a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition

role conflict

a situation when one or more of an individual’s roles clash

role performance

the expression of a role

role strain

stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role

role-set

an array of roles attached to a particular status

roles

patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status

self-fulfilling prophecy

an idea that becomes true when acted upon

social integration

how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group

society

a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same cultural components

status

the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to his or her rank and role in society

Thomas theorem

how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality
anticipatory socialization

the way we prepare for future life roles

degradation ceremony

the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones

generalized other

the common behavioral expectations of general society

hidden curriculum

the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms

moral development

the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society

nature

the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development

nurture

the role that our social environment plays in self-development

peer group

a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests

resocialization

the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place

self

a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction

socialization

the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
aggregate

a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity

authoritarian leader

a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks

bureaucracies

formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality.

category

people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way

clear division of labor

the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform

coercive organizations

organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital

conformity

the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms

democratic leader

a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action

dyad

a two-member group

explicit rules

the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized

expressive function

a group function that serves an emotional need

expressive leader

a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing

formal organizations

large, impersonal organizations

group

any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity

hierarchy of authority

a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy

impersonality

the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation

in-group

a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity

instrumental function

being oriented toward a task or goal

instrumental leader

a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks

Iron Rule of Oligarchy

the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration

laissez-faire leader

a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions

leadership function

the main focus or goal of a leader

leadership style

the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members

McDonaldization of Society

the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions

meritocracy

a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills

normative or voluntary organizations

organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards

out-group

a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with

primary groups

small, informal groups of people who are closest to us

reference groups

groups to which an individual compares herself

secondary groups

larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited

total institution

an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs

triad

a three-member group

utilitarian organizations

organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need
conflict theory

a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance

control theory

a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society

corporate crime

crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment

corrections system

the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses

court

a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law

crime

a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions

criminal justice system

an organization that exists to enforce a legal code

deviance

a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms

differential association theory

a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance

formal sanctions

sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced

hate crimes

attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics

informal sanctions

sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions

labeling theory

the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society

legal codes

codes that maintain formal social control through laws

master status

a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual

negative sanctions

punishments for violating norms

nonviolent crimes

crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force

police

a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level

positive sanctions

rewards given for conforming to norms

power elite

a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources

primary deviance

a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others

sanctions

the means of enforcing rules

secondary deviance

deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society

self-report study

a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews

social control

the regulation and enforcement of norms

social disorganization theory

a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control

social order

an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives

strain theory

a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals

street crime

crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces

victimless crime

activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them

violent crimes

crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force