Edexcel A-Level Geography - Regeneration

Economic Activity

Activity if making, providing, purchasing or selling goods or services

Employment Structure

How the workforce is divided up between the employment sectors

Economic Sector

Different sectors of the economy based on their role e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Primary Sector

Low paid, manual work (agriculture, forestry, mining, fishing)

Secondary Sector

Low paid, manual work (manufacturing)

Tertiary Sector

Ranges from minimum wage to high paid professionals (retail, services, office work)

Quaternary Sector

Jobs in research, development and high tech industries (Scientific Research, ICT)

Full-time Employment

Where a person works a minimum number of hours defined as such by their employer

Part-time Employment

People who work fewer than 30 hours a week. Usually work rotational shifts

Temporary Employment

When you work for only a certain amount of time before your contract ends

Permanent Employment

Staff that work at a company until they decide to leave

Employed

People that work for a company

Self-employed

People who own their own company or work for themselves

UK Sector Employment as % (1841)

- 22% in the Primary Sector

- 36% worked in the Secondary Sector

- 33% in the Tertiary Sector

Quality of Life Indices

- Health

- Life Expectancy

- Levels of Education

Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)

Uses statistics of income, employment, health deprivation, disability, education, housing, crime and environment quality to produce an index reflecting the overall quality of life

UK Sector Employment as % (2011)

- 1% in the Primary Sector

- 9% in the Secondary Sector

- 81% in the Tertiary Sector

UK Employment number Figures (2015)

- 32 million workers

- 1.85 million (5.6%) unemployed

UK Contract number Figures (2015)

- 18.4 million people with Full-time contracts

- 9 million people with Part-time contracts (Growing Trend)

Rust Belt

Midwest USA

Deindustrialisation due to = shrinking industry, globalisation, automation, steel and coal decline

Detroit deprivation = 45/100000 murders in Detroit, over 8% unemployment, 50% decline in population since 1950

Political engagement

2001 election = 70% turnout of over 65s but 39% 18-24yrs

Scotland = 20% more interested in politics than London, more likely to vote (Possibly due to sentiment of change felt amoung many Scots for independence)

Clarke Fisher Model

Used to represent changes in employment during the 'pre-industrial', 'industrial' and 'post-industrial' periods.

UK Pre-industrial Stage

1450-1750

UK industrial Stage

1800-1960

UK Post-industrial Stage

1960-Present

UK Employment rate trends

- Employment rate fluctuates between 70% and 75%

- Employment dropped to an average of 64% during WW1 and WW2

- Dropped during 1980's religion

- Currently at a record high

Trends of Sectoral shares of Employment (UK)

Primary sector decreased from 14.3% in 1920 to 1.3% in 2016

Secondary sector decreased from 34.2% in 1920 to 15.1% in 2016

Tertiary sector increase from 51.5% in 1920 to 83.6% in 2016

Women's labour market participation (UK)

- Employment patterns changed during as a result of WW1 and WW2. A shift in attitude lead to equal opportunities

- 1914 = Only 23.6% of women in employment

- Post WW2 = 90% of women in employment

Changes in Full/Part-time employment (UK)

- Women increasingly switching from Part-time to Full-time employment. This is due to more women wanting to pursue careers

- However, women still dominate Part-time employment (87.3% in 1984, 73.3% in 2018)

Trends of Employees and Self-employed workers (UK)

- Number of employees rising relative to business cycle.

- Employees have a greater job security

- Self employed workers have also increased due to flexible work and technological advancements

Variations in economic activity and social implications - Health

Diet - fast food is cheaper than organic food, inner cities have easy access to it

Quality of housing - bad conditions, e.g. damp and mould growing; can't afford to repair

Access to healthcare

Variations in economic activity and social implications - Life Expectancy

Biological differences - female 82.9, male 79.2

Lifestyle choices - drinking, smoking, exercise - wealthier people have better diets and exercise

Variations in economic activity and social implications - Education

Children receiving free school meals do worse in school (working class white children)

Only 31% of 'Deprived Children' manage to achieve a grade 5 or higher in GCSEs

Reasons for Economic Differences (Middlesbrough vs Reading)

22.5% of people in Middlesbrough had no educational qualifications, versus 11.5% in Reading

19% had a University level qualification in Middlesbrough, but 43% in Reading

Reading Average weekly wage = £605

Middlesbrough Average weekly wage = £532

Factors impacting engagement

Age/Gender (Older people more engaged)

Ethnicity (participation increased in certain parts of UK)

Sense of membership

Influence

Residency time (longer = more engaged)

Deprivation (Inequality drives participation)

Attachment to a place

Sport (Hereford football team, Amir Khan boxer from Bolton)

Music (Liverpool = Beatles)

Cause of regeneration conflict

Inequality, ethnic tensions, lack of political engagement, rural/urban divide

Northern Powerhouse

Idea from former chancellor George Osbourne in 2014

Believed more economic/physical (HS2) connections would provide growth

Conflict between cities to which one would become the main economic hub

HS2

Part of Northern Powerhouse plan to build over 300 miles of high-speed railway to regenerate multiple regions of the UK

Positives = 25,000 jobs, greater connectedness for 30m people, £92bn benefit after construction

Conflicts = local people and environmentalists against plan, £56bn cost, concerns that it doesn't solve the issue of London-centricity

ONS

Office for National Statistics - responsible for holding/gathering a wide range of data on the UK

Place

Geographical space shaped by individuals/ communities over time

Regeneration

- Long-term upgrading of existing places

- Aims to tackle inequality

- Makes places more economically productive and socially acceptable

What are the four main place functions?

Administrative, commercial, retail, industrial

Administrative function information

Include council offices, schools and other public services like clinics and hospitals

What are processes?

The movement of people, capital, information and resources

What is rebranding?

Developments aimed at changing negative perceptions of a place making it more attractive to investment

What is re-imaging?

The process of making a place more attractive to live or visit and more desirable to invest in

What are the two aims of regeneration?

To tackle inequalities in either rural or urban areas

To make places more economically productive

Commercial function information

Offices of service industries such as legal services, accountants

Retail function information

Shops that range in size from small to malls

Industrial function information

Factories, warehouses and distribution centres

Gentrification changing functions of a place

When affluent people move into a location.

Planners may allow developers to upgrade a place's characteristics, residential and retail to deliberately attract people of a higher social status and income.

Age Structure changing functions of a place

Age Category (20-44)

Middlesbrough = 32%

Reading = 43%.

Suggests more young professional workers in Reading

Ethnic Composition changing functions of a place

Ethnic group make-up of a population.

In the UK the main groups are White, Asian and Black. Ethnicity is different from nationality.

Example of evidence of gentrification

Fletton Quays, Peterborough

How physical factors can change a place

Location and proximity to larger cities

Coastal erosion forcing change - residents leaving

Flooding/natural disasters requiring re-building

How accessibility and connections can change a place

Access to other places - by road (mainly motorways), rail, and air

Connections help competition for investment and visitors

New transport links, motorways, internet and broadband

How historical development can change a place

Post-production era - once the main employment sector, primary jobs (agriculture, farming, fishing) have been replaced by tertiary and quaternary jobs

Changes in consumer trends - retail has moved from corner shops to supermarkets to online shopping, house types: increased demand for single homes due to demographic and cultural trends

Increased affluence - increased leisure and tourism functions, so many houses and buildings have been converted, e.g. bar, B&Bs, and second homes

How local and national planning can change a place

Image causing government intervention, national government policies on restructuring the UK economy, trying to equalise the benefits and reduce the negative externalities of change

What are the four methods of measuring change?

- Land-use changes

- Employment trends

- Demographic changes

- Levels of deprivation

Media perception

Newspapers = Nationals favour London/SE

Estate agents = exaggerate positives

Tourism adverts = Promote positives

Blogs/forums = very negative view of local area/regeneration

How is the index of multiple deprivation used?

Used by central government and especially by local authorities to target regeneration aid, to allocate resources to places and people (e.g. areas with low average GCSE score) and target hotspots of crime

New York through media

Gossip girl = uptown residents look down on lower Manhatten (highlights wealth divide)

How i met your mother = Shows issues of loneliness of hard working graduates

Empire State of Mind = identifies uniqueness of New York

Deregulation

Conservatives did this in 1986 to enable FDI (Canary Wharf)

2008 crisis increased state regulations and control over financial centre

What makes Peterborough attractive?

- Great railway communications

- Availability of quality

- Relatively inexpensive land and labour

Why has the population of Peterborough increased?

- Inward migration

- Natural increase

By how much does Peterboroughs population grow per year?

2500 per annum

By how much has Peterborough's population grown since 1971?

110,000

By how much has Peterborough's output grown since 1971?

34%

By how much has Peterborough's employment grown since 1971?

45%

What was set up after the Peterborough Development Corporation ceased formal business?

Peterborough Development Agency was set up as a private sector to promote economic development

When was the Peterborough Development Corporation established?

1968

Role of Peterborough Development Corporation

Core objective to provide homes, work, facilities and services for an additional 70,000 people

Decrease in manufacturing employment in Peterborough

1971 - 34%

2015 - 15%

What did Peterborough adopt in July 2005?

A new development plan - plans to accommodate 22,000 homes, 18,000 jobs, 40,000 people by 2020

Why is Peterborough a cost effective location?

Proximity and ease of access to London

Property and land costs, gross weekly pay = below national average

What is Peterborough's largest employment 'sector'?

Distribution, transport, accommodation, food - 35,000 jobs, 29% of all employment

Migration into Peterborough

2001-2011: 24,166 people moved in

Central Europeans immigration Peterborough

2011 - 14,134 of the population were born in Central/Eastern Europe

What is studentification?

Refers to the process of social, environmental and economic change affected by large numbers of students invading particular areas of the cities and towns in which popular universities are located

Social achievements of London Docklands regeneration

New roads built (e.g. Limehouse Road Link) - improved commute quality and time

Many older people have moved out - often retiring to the Essex coast

Older residents replaced by younger population - 2011, average age of Newham was 31 (UK average is 40)

Large-scale immigration since 2000 has increased the East Ends ethnic composition - Newham is now London's most ethnically diverse borough

Economic achievements of London Docklands regeneration

New high rise buildings replaced docks and industry - stimulate quaternary industry

1980 - government introduced the Right to Buy scheme, which gave those living in council housing the right to buy it at a reduced price

Environmental achievements of London Docklands regeneration

Reduction in manufacturing since docks closed - less industrial pollution

Social problems of London Docklands regeneration

Gentrification has resulted in traditional communities being broken up

High deprivation in Tower Hamlets and Newham as these in poor health are unable to work and concentrated in what remains of low-cost social housing

Tower Hamlets had the lowest average life expectancy in London in 2012 - 77 years

Environmental problems of London Docklands regeneration

Improved infrastructure (e.g. London City Airport) increases pollution

Economic problems of London Docklands regeneration

Poverty is still present there - 27% of Newham's working population earned less than £7 an hour in 2012

Lower income people living in social housing have been moved out

Where is Sydney?

One of Australia's largest cities, southeast

Economic reasons Sydney is successful

With overseas owned banks and TNCs, it's the leading financial centre for the Asia-Pacific region, providing high waged, skilled jobs

Employment levels are generally high with above average incomes

2011 - over 450,000 businesses based in Sydney, these included half of Australia's top 500 companies

Social reasons Sydney is successful

Young economically active workforce - median age of 36 (UK is 41)

Low levels of multiple deprivation

Environmental reasons Sydney is successful

Attracts businesses partly because of it's beaches, harbour environment, and climate

What is the Rust Belt?

A region in northeast US that has experienced industrial decline economic decline, population loss, and urban decay

Reasons for decline in the Rust Belt

Globalisation and outsourcing of many industries to low-wage Asian countries (global shift)

High paying manufacturing jobs, notably in the car industry, vanished and the workers went with them

Detroit population loss

1950 - 1.8 million

2013 - 700,000

Detroit unemployment

Unemployment rate peaked in 2009 at 28%

Detroit house prices

2009 - average house price was $7500

Illiteracy in Detroit

2011 - 47%

Schools closing Detroit

Since 2005, over 100 schools closed

Detroit crime

Crime capital of America - 7 out of 10 crimes unsolved

Detroit Ethnicity

82% black

8% white

7% Hispanic

1% Asian

2% mixed

Why is Detroit dominated by Black African Americans?

They are the lowest income group left behind when other groups - generally more skilled and better educated - have migrated from Detroit as it has declined