Exam 3

The process by which individuals move from one place to another

Migration

The act of leaving one’s country of birth [or original citizenship] to move to a new country [departure]

Emigration

The act of moving to and settling in a new country [arrival]

Immigration

Countries of origin from which migrants depart

Sending countries

Host or destination countries

Receiving countries

Enact policies typically to limit or restrict the flow of immigrants; this results in differentiated statuses for individual immigrants

Countries and governments (“The State”)

An immigrant who has obtained permanent residency in their new country; in the US, such a person would hold a “green card”

Lawful permanent resident (LPR)

An immigrant who has obtained citizenship in their new country

Foreign-born citizen (including a naturalized citizen)

A person allowed to live in a country for a specified period of time; i.e. seasonal worker visas, working holiday visas, student visas

Legal temporary resident

A person living in a country where they are not legally allowed to reside; i.e. overstayed student visas, tourist visas, etc., or entering the country by bypassing border enforcement (including as unknowing infants or children)

Unauthorized or undocumented immigrant

A special status afforded to individuals escaping persecution or fear they will be persecuted on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinions, or membership in a particular social group; referral for this status can only be obtained outside the US

Refugee

A special status afforded to individuals who meet the qualifications for refugee status but are seeking admission at point-of-entry (a US border or airport) or already reside in the country

Asylee

No restriction on the number of LPR statuses granted; i.e. spouses, minor children, and parents of U.S. citizens

Unlimited lawful permanent resident status

Restrictions, usually through a ranked priority system; i.e. for adult children and siblings of U.S. citizens, spouses and unmarried children of LPRs, employee immigrants, diversity immigrants (“lottery visas”)

Limited lawful permanent resident status

The process by which an immigrant (an LPR in particular) can become a foreign-born U.S. citizen

Naturalization process

• 18+ years of age

• Maintaining LPR status for sufficient time

  • Being an LPR for 5+ years, or...

  • Being an LPR for 3+ years with a U.S. citizen spouse, who has also been a citizen for 3+ years,and living with said spouse for 3+ years

• Residing in the same state/district for 3+ months

• Mastering English, completing a history/civics test, and illustrating “good moral character”

Requirements for the naturalization process

Securing the LPR in the first place can often be the ______ hurdle…

bigger

Refugees and asylees are granted a ______ process for naturalization (typically required to legally change to LPR status after 1+ year of residence or lose refugee status)

shorter

• Policies

  • Few formal policies or institutions

    • Naturalization Acts (1790-1802)

    • Birthright citizenship (est. 1866)

• Migrants

  • Significant numbers of Western Europeans (voluntary) and enslaved Africans (forced)

• Global Events

  • European Settler-Colonialism, Atlantic Slave Trade

First Era of Migration (1789-1874)

• Policies

  • First formal policies and institutions to manage and control immigration

    • Page Act (1875); Chinese

    • Exclusion Act (1882)

    • Immigration Act of 1891

    • Naturalization Act (1906)

• Migrants

  • Many Eastern/Southern Europeans on East Coast; new Asian immigrants on West Coast

• Global Events

  • Industrialization, steam-powered ships, growing antisemitism (especially in Russia), other independence revolutions (Mexico), and genocidal regimes (Armenia)

Second Era of Migration (1875-1920)

• Policies

  • Quota System Established:

    • Emergency Quota Act (1921); Immigration Act of 1924

  • U.S. Border Patrol Established (1924)Bracero Program (1942 –

    1964)

• Migrants

  • Significant reduction in immigration, except for temporary Mexican labor under the Bracero Program

• Global events

  • Great Depression, American Eugenics, World War II and the Holocaust

Third Era of Migration (1921-1964)

• Policies

  • The Immigration and Nationality Act (1965)

    • Eliminated national-origin quota system

    • Established visa system

    • Refuge and asylum policies

    • Diversity visas

• Migrants

  • Shift from Eurocentric migratory patterns to increased Asian and Latin American migration

• Global Events

  • Cold War, refugee relocation plans, debates over “undocumented migration,” contemporary Globalization

Fourth Era of Migration (1965-present)

Current attention has shifted to “undocumented immigration,” in part because of major policy changes that altered the nature of undocumented immigration:

• Illegal immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA, 1996)

• Patriot Act (2002)

• Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA, 2014)

Contemporary Era (changes from 1996)

What percent of immigrants in the U.S. are undocumented?

23% (~10.5 million)

What percent of undocumented immigrants have lived in the US for 10+ years?

60%

Most unauthorized immigrants; do not cross the border or arrive by air without authorization but rather stay beyond visa or waiver limitations

Overstays

How many of the 10.5 million undocumented immigrants arrived to the US as minors?

2 million

Established in 2014; provides undocumented individuals who arrived as minors with:

• The right (and responsibility) to attend public schools

• The right to work

• The right to “permanent” residency (barring other criminal charges)

But they are barred from lawful permanent residence (LPR) and thus from the primary pathway to naturalization

Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)

Involves repeated migration between two or more countries, with individuals returning to their home country after a period of time; reasons for such migratory patterns can vary, but often the biggest reasons are: 1) seasonal labor demands, 2) temporary economic opportunities, 3) Shifting familial responsibilities, 4) climate change

Circular flow/Circular migration

Many sociologists, public policy experts, and historians argue that IIRAIRA, and policies that followed it, resulted in the disruption of “circular flow.”

Harsh, deterrence-based policies around undocumented migration encouraged more individuals to stay in the United States after an initial border crossing, ironically increasing the number of undocumented immigrants in the United States (and encouraging more to use the Asylum Program for that initial crossing).

Disrupted circular flow

Immigration occurs because there are social and cultural forces that push individuals out of their countries and pull them into the new one; migration is a response to economic, political, cultural, and social conditions such as wars, economic inequality, industry, family, etc.; individuals may choose, but are also ultimately affected by their social contexts, which are often either out of their control or not fully known

Push-pull theory

Labor supply/demand differences between countries encourages economic migration

Neoclassical economics

Work safety, housing opportunities, cost of living, working language requirements, inflation, social mobility, etc. can also facilitate economic migration

• Varies by industry, specialization, etc.

• Economic migration is often temporary: working holidays, seasonal work visas, etc.

• These decisions are made on a “micro-scale”, while supply.demand is “macro-” i.e. individuals lack full knowledge of economies and make decisions on limited information

Alongside job-related migration, this can also include migration for education and training purposes

Contemporary sociology

• Not enough jobs or opprotunities

• Loss of wealth through high inflation or unemployment

• Poor working conditions, including low safety or poor benegits

• Poor upward social mobility

• Lack of educational opportunities, training programs, or entry-level experience

Economic push factors

• Real or predicted job opportunites

• High exchange rate or baseline wages

• Improved working conditions, such as safety and benefits

• Increased upward social mobility

• Opportunities to gain knowledge and/or experience

Economic pull factors

Social networks—usually of family and friends— can be a major driver of migration; knowing someone in a destination country provides…

• Insider information and knowledge

• Resources and support upon arrival

• A way of imagining life in the new country

Social network/chain migration pull factors

• Political unrest, including war

• Limitations on political and or religious freedom

Political push factors

• Poor medical care

• Poor chances marrying or starting a family

• Fear of persecution or threats of violence

• Discrimination or (legal) barriers to personal goals

Social push factors

• Disease or environmental hazards

• Natural disasters

• Famine or drought

Environmental push factors

• Security

• Guaranteed freedoms, including freedom of expression

Political pull factors

• Better medical care

• Better chances of marrying or raising a family

• Legal protections and accepting culture

Social pull factors

• Reduced presence of infectious diseases

• Fewer environmental hazards

• Attractive climates and weather

Environmental pull factors

The process by which immigrants come to be incorporated into their new society

Assimilation

Historically, the focus of assimilation was on ______, or the extent to which an immigrant family conforms to the mainstream culture of the receiving country; the focus now is much more economic, political, and communal outcomes

culture

In both definitions, the process is usually understood to be __________, or occurring across at least two or three generations.

intergenerational

First-generation

Immigrants

Second-generation

Children of immigrants

Third-generation

Grandchildren of immigrants

The distinctive pathways by which immigrant groups become part of the larger social fabric; some researchers have found that children of immigrants are not all treated the same, and some members of some immigrant groups are more likely to receive economic and social opportunities than others; suggests that:

• 1) The process of assimilation is not uniform, but an uneven process of intergenerational social mobility; and

• 2) There is no singular “American” society to assimilate to, but rather “segments” of society

In turn, this model seeks to identify predictors of upward vs. downward mobility between generations, highlighting three

Segmented assimilation

Identifies three generalized factors that predict upward/downward intergenerational mobility

• 1) Parental education and occupation

• 2) Family structure

• 3) Context of reception

Portes’ Segmented Assimilation Model

Policies of the government, attitudes of the public, and strength of existing ethnic/immigrant community; these are often tied to the context of departure (refugee status, undocumented migration, etc.) or perceptions related to such departures (deserving vs. undeserving refugees)

Context of reception

General outcome “segments”

Vietnamese in the US

Preventing downward assimilation via communal childcare and accessible healthcare to minimize economic burdens on family; and support for multi-lingual services and activities, especially “cultural” and heritage activities

Better state policies for integration

Preventing downward assimilation via after-school activities to foster community ties as well as less policed ethnic enclaves to promote multi-family support relationships

Stronger community bonds and local organizational support

Preventing downward assimilation via educational outreach, such as SAT and College Admissions Prep as well as role-modeling and advocacy for youth

Individualized mentorship and intervention programs

Conscious, concerted, and sustained efforts by ordinary people to change or preserve some aspect of their society

Social movements

Social movements often use _______ _____ that lie outside the scope of regular institutions and decision-making processes of political life; their activities usually consist of protest activities

extrainstitutuional means

Social movements are different from “riots” or “fads” in their temporal and organizational dimensions. That is, both riots and fads are _____ and largely _______ social phenomena.

short-term, disorganized

The desired outcomes of a movement; these may change based on political circumstances and alliances

Goals

A pivotal moment or culturally salient image that symbolizes the movement, often used as a rallying call-to-action

Turning point

The capacity of a movement to secure and use resources— materials, allies, public opinion— to serve its interests and needs

Resource mobilization

The effort of a movement to adopt relevant language and images to convince the public or major institutional actors of the relevance and validity of the movement and its goals

Framing

Suggests that two key factors are necessary for a social movement to emerge:

1. Political opportunities (resource mobilization)

2. Actor consciousness (framing)

Political press model

Organizational or legal-structural openings and/or support that facilitate movement-based activity

Political opportunities

Some shared or collective belief in an issue worth addressing and the possibility of change

Actor consciousness

Movements highlight _____ _______ by challenging traditional ideas that most people take for granted. Thanks to social movements, many people (and other species) have rights that were not recognized before

moral sensibilities

Encourage us to figure out how we feel about government policies, corporations, social trends, widespread cultural beliefs, and new technologies

Social movements

Are one of the most important ways for ordinary people to limit the power of political and economic elites and challenge capitalism, racism, sexism, and homophobia

Movements

Refer to the techniques and behaviors adopted by a social movement, and its actors/leaders, in the interest of achieving one or more goals

Tactics

A long-term plan by the movement involving multiple different tactics and activities; some movements only develop this later; others may not last long enough to formalize one

Strategy

A set of tactics known by movement activists and leaders, usually used in the past

Repertoires

Lobbying, phone banking, policy proposals and drafting of legislation, formal meetings and hearings, collective grievances or negotiation

Mainstream intervention tactics

Protests, boycotts, labor strikes, sit-ins, hunger strikes, rallies

Mobilization tactics

Movement actors have four distinct audiences to consider when adopting movement tactics/strategies

1. Opponents

2. Current supporters

3. Prospective supporters (who have not yet joined the movement)

4. Third-party forces (neutral, but with power to hurt— or sometimes help— the movement, such as police, media, or the government)

• Applies pressure to a corporation via loss of revenue/profit

• Low-effort, low-risk for current supporters

• Minimal negative effect on prospective supporters; easy to adopt and participate

• Likely will receive some media coverage (hard to twist as bad); limited police intervention and no clear violation of law

Boycott

Movement goals are usually the ______ consequences of a social movement; some movement may not achieve those goals directly; however, this does not mean they had no impact

intended

• Incremental changes, or partial developments toward the goal(s)

• Training, molding, and socialization of future movement leaders

• Formation of new networks of activists, actors, or supporting organizations

• Development of new tactics, which may become incorporated into future repertoires

• Cultural shifts in awareness, beliefs, or attitudes of the public

Unintended consequences of movements include

What are the social contexts that shape health outcomes? How are health outcomes related to environment, stress, and culture? Are there limitations to an individual-oriented model of health and healthcare?

Social determinants of health

What are the functions of healthcare institutions in a society? And what happens when they fail to fulfill those functions? How do medical organizations produce or reproduce inequalities and oppression? How to meanings and interaction (doctor-patient; researcher-subject) shape health outcomes?

Medical institutions and practices

Typically focus on individual health practices (diet, exercise, reduction of risky behaviors, etc.); sociologists argue that population-level patterns of health are shaped by broader social contexts

Medical interventions

Community resources, environmental stressors, job constraints/stability, social support and cohesion, stratification and oppression

Independent variables

Life expectancy, infant mortality, disease and fatality, hypertension/diabetes/asthma, risk-related coping mechanisms

Dependent variables

One of the mechanisms by which environment, inequality, and external stressors impact the body

Allostatic load

Refers to the cumulative “wear and tear” on the body via repeated or chronic stress, caused by psychosocial stressors

Type 2 allostatic load

• Low-income/wealth, homelessness/poverty, and demanding jobs

• Experiences with prejudice, discrimination, and growing senses of hopelessness

• Environmental stressors, including pollution and crime

• Traumatic life events

Psychosocial stressors

Allostatic load is why the final sociological claim, by Dr. David WIlliams, was that the public policies on education, crime, economic regulation, housing, etc. are ultimately also _____ ______.

health policy

In the US, sociologists are concerned about…

• The current social, political, and economic structure of healthcare and its impact on medical treatment and population-level health measures

• Unequal access and stratified health outcomes by social groups, particularly by sex/gender, race, and class

• Doctor-patient interactions and power dynamics, also influenced by sex/gender, race, and class

Healthcare model where payment and policy is publicly funded via taxation; '“free” (or low cost) at point-of-service, with the state as the provider, thus making pricing state-determined; problems of this model include that it is bureaucratic and requires state administration

Beveridge Model (UK, Spain, Hong Kong)

Healthcare model involving payment and policy is mandated insurance, typically paid via employer/employee payroll deductions, with the provider being the state or private and pricing being state-regulated (community rating, risk equalization, rate-setting); problems of this model include potential inequalities and that it may leave the poor uninsured as well as that it requires frequent government-private negotiation

Bismarck Model (Germany, France, Japan)

Healthcare model where payment and policy are publicly funded via taxation; '“free” (or low cost) at point-of-service, where the provider is mostly private and the pricing is state-negotiated; problems include that it requires frequent government-private negotiation

Contracted Single-Payer Model (Canada, Taiwan, South Korea)

Healthcare model where payment and policy is handled by individual patients and the provider is mostly private; pricing is market-driven; problems include that this model is very unequal, and leaves the poor untreated and can lead to public health problems

Out-of-pocket

In the US, institutions that use the Beveridge Model

US Dept. of Veteran’s Affairs (VA) Hospitals

In the US, institutions that use the Bismarck Model

Affordable care act…except we have minimal government intervention and management of pricing

In the US, institutions that use the Contracted Single-Payer Model

Medicare and Medicade

In the US, institutions that use Out-of-Pocket or Opt-in Private Insurance

Uninsured and Uncovered Health Services

The general trend in the US towards approaching healthcare through capitalistic logic (profit, return on investment, efficiency, deregulation, etc.)

Commercialization of Health

The shifting of healthcare from the Welfare State and non-profit organizations to private corporations and investors

Privatization

Separation of different aspects of healthcare services for billing purposes, based on historical codes for tracking disease and injury

Unbundling and coding

Efforts between insurers and providers to reduce billing prices in exchange for higher supply of patients

• Hospitals and doctors’ offices usually have a “master list of charges” (usually based on codes) that dictate billing; however, insurers rarely pay that price. They, instead, negotiate directly with providers to settle on an “adjusted rate” or “negotiated price,” with the intent/goal of encouraging frequent patient use of the provider’s service.

• This is why insurance plans often differentiate between “in-network” and “out-of-network” providers; they effectively negotiated with in-network providers, reducing cost in exchange for funneling patients to that provider

Price negotiation