learning, classical/operant conditioning

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience

Associative learning

Learning that involves making connections between events or between behaviors and their consequences

Environmental determinism

The idea that behavior is shaped and controlled by environmental factors rather than internal traits

Ivan Pavlov & his research

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs and salivation

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

An unlearned, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with a UCS, triggers a conditioned response

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Contiguity

The close timing or pairing of two stimuli occurring together in time and space

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when an association between stimuli or responses is formed

Timing

The importance of the order and closeness in time between the CS and UCS for learning to occur

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli

Extinction

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period

John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner

Psychologists who demonstrated classical conditioning of fear in humans, “Little Albert”

Little Albert

Watson and Rayner’s experiment showing a baby could be conditioned to fear a white rat

Higher/second-order conditioning

Conditioning in which a neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS

Taste aversion / Garcia effect

A learned avoidance of a food after becoming ill, often after only one pairing

John Garcia & R.A. Koelling (1966)

Researchers who showed that animals are biologically prepared to learn certain associations

Importance

Demonstrates how learning principles explain emotional responses and behavior

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behavior and external stimuli

Behaviorists

Psychologists who study learning through observable behavior

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is shaped by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment

Instrumental conditioning

Another term for operant conditioning; behavior is instrumental in producing outcomes

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again

Edward Thorndike

Psychologist who studied trial-and-error learning

Law of effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist who expanded operant conditioning and studied reinforcement

Skinner box

A controlled environment used to study operant conditioning in animals

Positive reinforcer

A stimulus added after a behavior that increases the behavior

Negative reinforcer

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior

Primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need

Secondary reinforcer

A reinforcer that gains value through association with a primary reinforcer

Wolfe’s Chimp Experiment

Demonstrated insight learning in chimpanzees using stacked boxes

Continuous schedule

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs

Partial schedule

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time

Differences between continuous & partial

Continuous leads to faster learning; partial leads to greater resistance to extinction

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement after unpredictable time intervals

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior

Chaining

Linking together individual behaviors to form a complex behavior

Aversive control

Using unpleasant stimuli to influence behavior

Escape conditioning

Behavior that stops an unpleasant stimulus

Avoidance conditioning

Behavior that prevents an unpleasant stimulus

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior

Disadvantages of punishment

Can cause fear, aggression, and does not teach correct behavior

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior

Mary Cover Jones

Psychologist who pioneered behavior therapy

Behavior therapy

Therapy that uses learning principles to change behavior

Desensitization

Gradual exposure to feared stimuli while remaining relaxed

Joseph Wolpe

Psychologist who developed systematic desensitization

Reciprocal inhibition

Two incompatible responses cannot occur at the same time

Systematic desensitization

Gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli while practicing relaxation

Anxiety hierarchy

A ranked list of fears from least to most anxiety-provoking

Robert Rescorla

Psychologist who emphasized cognitive processes in classical conditioning

Contingency theory

Learning depends on how reliably one stimulus predicts another

Instinctive drift

Tendency for learned behavior to revert to biologically innate behaviors

Abstract learning

Learning concepts such as rules or patterns

Insight learning

Sudden understanding of a problem without trial-and-error

David Premack – Premack Principle

More preferred activities can reinforce less preferred activities

Social learning

Learning that occurs by observing others

Cognitive learning

Learning that involves mental processes

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated

Edward Tolman

Psychologist who studied latent learning

Cognitive map

A mental representation of spatial relationships

Learned helplessness

Giving up due to repeated failure or uncontrollable events

Expectancies

Beliefs about future outcomes

Hiroto 1974 Study

Demonstrated learned helplessness in humans

Martin Seligman

Psychologist who studied learned helplessness

Stability

Belief that causes of events are permanent

Globality

Belief that causes affect many areas of life

Internality

Belief that causes are internal to oneself

Problem-focused coping

Dealing directly with the source of stress

Emotion-focused coping

Managing emotional responses to stress

Locus of control

Belief about whether outcomes are controlled internally or externally

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating others

Observational learning (imitation)

Learning by watching others’ behavior

Vicarious learning

Learning by observing the consequences of others’ actions

Vicarious reinforcement

Seeing others rewarded and increasing similar behavior

Reciprocal determinism

Interaction between behavior, personal factors, and environment

Albert Bandura

Psychologist who studied observational learning

Bobo experiment

Study showing children imitate aggressive behavior