SJSU Gov Final

Roots of Interest Groups

• growth of labor & trade

• first national groups emerge in 1830s

• business interests play a larger role after Civil War

• begin to send lobbyists (people of influence) to Washington

• made working conditions more humane

• Progressive era leads to an explosion of groups

The Interest Group State

• expansion of civil rights & groups in 1960s

• declining power of organized labor

• development of conservative & religious groups

• evolution of new business groups dedicated to lobbying

History of Interest Group Formation

to seek influence in public policy

Interest Group Formation in the U.S

1. Social Clevages (factions)

2. Federalism (3 layers of gov’t)

3. Separation of powers (3 branches)

4. The decline of Politicial Powers

Interest Groups

organizations of people w/ shared policy goals entering policy process at several points to try to achieve their goals

Difference between Interest groups & parties

Political Parties: fight election battles

• policy generalists

Interest Groups: do not field candidates for office but may choose sides

• policy specialists

Interests Groups electoral support to Congress

• provide info & policy/legislation support

• making laws & policies after doing research → congress says yes

Interests Groups in Action

• regulated by the gov’t

• can lose tax-exempt

• must register w/ Congress

• must file financial reports status if lobby is “too much” or breaks rules

Theories of Interest Group Politics

Hyperpluralism & Subgovernments

Subgovernments

• network of groups that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas

• consist of interest groups, government agency, and congressional committees that handle particular politices (iron triangle)

Hyperpluralist Critique

groups have become too powerful as the gov’t tries to appease every interest (results in contradictory policies)

• many subgovernments (iron triangle) aggravate the process (legislation contradictory)

What makes Interest Groups Successful?

Potential, actual, and collective groups

Potential Group

all the people who might be interest groups members because they share a common interest

Actual Group

the part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join

• 10 amendments/civil rights & liberties

Collective Group

something of value that cannot be withheld from a group member

• teacher union (benefits)

Intensity of Interest Groups

single-issue groups: groups that focus on a narrow interest, dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics

• may focus on emotional issue, providing a psychological advantage

• encourages non-conventional means of participation (ex: protests)

Financial Resources of Interest Groups

• not all groups have equal amounts of money

• monetary donations usually translate into access to the politicians (phone call, meeting, or support for policy)

Wealthier groups have more resources

• presumably have more access, but don’t always win on policy (overton window)

Interest Groups Bias:

• americans join groups a lot out of a sense of civic duty & policy efficacy

• joiners tend to be high-status, wealthy, have free time, and connections

Free-Rider Problem

some people don’t join interest groups bc they benefit from the group’s activities without officially joining

• bigger the group, larger the problem

• large groups are difficult to organize

Olsen’s Law of Large Groups

“The larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good.”

• Attempt to Overcome: provide selective benefits: goods that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues

Small interest Groups

better organized and more focused on the group’s goal

Multinational Corporations

successful because there are a few of them and have easier time organizing for political action

Consumer Interest Groups

different time getting significant policy gains bc the benefits are spread over the entire population

Public Interest lobbies seek…

“a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively & materially benefit the membership activities of the organization”

Interest Groups in Action

• provide credible information

• organize public support/protest

• donate money/jobs (Revolving door)

(these are their attempts at influence, we are interchanging lobbying groups w/ interest groups)

How Interest Groups try to shape Policy:

Lobbying: target congress through research, money (form or donate to superpacs), or testimony (research, facts, data, implement)

• target bureaucratic agencies & the president

• can use grassroots techniques (ex: petitions)

• lobby courts through sponsorship or amicus briefs (letter to courts)

• may also resort to protests & activism

Lobbying:

“communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a government decisionmaker with the hope of influencing his decision.”

Two Types of Lobbyists

1. regular, paid employees of a group

2. temporary hires

Lobbyists

• source of info

• help politicians plan political startegies for: ideas & innovations, legislation campaigns

(mixed evidence as to whether lobbying works)

Electioneering

direct group involvement in the election process

• groups can help fund campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for conadidates; some form PACS

Political Action Committee (PAC)

used by interest groups to donate money to candidates

• help pay the bill for increasing campaign costs

• most PAC money goes to incumbents (people already in office)

Election Activities

• recruiting & endorsing candidates

• organzing, get out to vote efforts

• rating candidates & office holders

• establishing political action committees

Litigation

if an interest group fails in one arena, the courts may be able to provide a remedy

• interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs to influence a court’s decision

Class Action

lawsuits permit a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similar situated

Going Public

bc public opinion matters, groups try to:

• cultivate a good public image to build a reservoir of goodwill w/ the public

• use marketing strategies to influence public opinion of the group & its issues

• advertise to motivate & inform the public about an issue

Types of Interest Groups

• Economic Interest (labor, agriculture, business)

• Environmental

• Equality

• Consumer & Public Interest Lobbies

Types of Organized Interests

• public interest groups (Ex: Naral, NRA)

• economic interest groups (Ex: AFL-CIO, NAM)

• gov’tal units, who lobby for earmarks

• political action committees (Ex: EMILY’S List)

• multi-issue vs single-issue groups(stronger, focus on their economy)

Interest Group Bias

Business & Professional Groups

• interest groups are more influential & better financed than others

• don’t always represent the interests of their members

Understanding Interest Groups & the scope of the Gov’t

• seek to maintain policies & programs that benefit them

• continue to pressure government to do more things

What Influences the positions of Interest Groups?

• general philosophy & specific goals

• homogenity of the group

• people’s motive for joining

• the size of staff: staff(elites) often shape policy level of members activity/intensity

Pluralist Theory of Interest Group Politics

politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred politics

Elite Theory of Interest Group Politics

societies are divided among class lines & an upper-class elite rules, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization

Hyperpluralist Theory of Interest Group Politics

groups are so strong that gov’t is weakened, extreme exaggerated form of pluralism

Formal Niceties

formal niceties = the polite, proper ways officials interact to keep things professional and orderly

Interest Groups & Democracy

Pluralist: believe that the public interest would prevail from this competition

Elite Theorists: point to the proliferation of business PACS as evidence of interest group corruption

Hyperpluralists: maintain that group influence has led to policy gridlock (contradictory policies)

Pluralism & Group Theory

• groups provide a key link between the people & gov’t

• groups compete and no one group will become too dominant

• groups play by the “rules of the game”

• groups weak in one resource may use another

• lobbying is open to all so not a problem

Elites Theory (the denial of pluralism)

• real power is held by the relatively few

• the largest corporation hold the most power

• other groups may win many minor policy battles, but elites prevail when it comes to big policy decisions

• lobbying is a problem bc it benefits the few at the expense of the money

119th Congress

current meeting of the legislative branch of the U.S federal gov’t, composed of Senate & House of Representatives

House of Representatives

• 345 representatives (number of Rep., Dem., Libertarian, Independents vary every 2 years w/ elections)

• Representatives represent about 710,000 people each and serve 2 year terms

• eligible for retirement benefits, healthcare for life

The Senate

• 100 members (2 representatives per state regardless of population)

• a senator represents between 1-37 million people, depending on state’s population

• Senators serve staggered 6 year terms

• in charge of foreign relations

Annual Salary of memebers of Congress

House of Rep.: $174,000

Speaker of House: $223,500

Party Leaders (same as Senate leaders): $193,400

Cost of Living Adjustments (COLA)

Congress decides its own pay.

• Each year, members are set to get a small automatic raise (about 2%) to keep up with prices.

• This raise happens automatically unless Congress votes to stop it.

• 27th Amendment says Congress cannot give itself an immediate pay raise.

• But cost-of-living raises (COLA) don’t count as a real pay raise, so they can take effect right away.

• Voters still get a say because members face elections.

Speaker of the House (elected by House)

• second most powerful voice in gov’t (1st is pres.)

• 3rd in line for Presidency

• in charge of money & agenda

House Of Representatives

• House is more structured and hierarchical than the Senate

• Members usually show stronger loyalty to party leaders and vote more along party lines

• House Rules Committee: Controls how bills are debated—sets the schedule, debate time, and what amendments are allowed (members chosen by the Speaker)

• The House can impeach federal officials

• All revenue (tax) bills must start in the House

Whip

an official political party, tasked to ensure party discipline in legislature

• party “enforcers,” invite legislators to attend voting sessions & to vote according to the official party policy

The Senate

• less disciplined & centralized (since smaller)

• committees & party leadership more important in determining Senate legislative agenda

Filibuster

strategy unique to the Senate; opponents of a piece of legislation try to talk it to the death

• Cloture: 60 members can vote to stop a filibuster

Senate President: Vice President

under Constitution, the VP must serve as Pres. of the Senate

• may vote in the Senate in case of a tie, but not required to

Senate President Pro Tempore

takes over the chamber in VP’s absence, by custom the senator of the majority party w/ the longest record of continuous service

Committees & Subcommittees

most real work of Congress happens in committees

• dominate policy-making

• regularly hold hearing to investigate problems, possible wrongdoing, oversee executive branch

• control congressional agenda

• guide legislation from its introduction to its send-off for President’s signature

Standing Committee

separate permanent subject-matter committees in each house of Congress that handles bills in different policy areas

Subcommittees

smaller units of a committee created out of the committees & 4 subcommittees

Ex: House Committee on Judiciary (legal matters)

Subcommittee on Task Force on Antiturst, Administrative Law, Constitution, etc)

Property: subcommittee on crime, terrorism, and homeland security

Joint Committee

congressional committee on few subject-matter areas w/ membership drawn from both houses

• oversee functions of Gov’t printing office & general printing procedures of the Federal Gov’t

Conference Committees

congressional committee formed to work out differences when the senate & the house pass a particular bill in different forms

• party leadership appoints members from each house, result must be a single bill

Select Committees

congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose (temporary)

• senate select committee on presidential campaign activities → watergate

Pork Barrel

Gov’t spending that mainly benefits a specific group’s interest often to gain political support

Legislative Oversight

Congressional Oversight keeps eye on government agencies to make sure they carry out laws properly, mainly through hearings

• Check the legislative branch's oversight of the executive branch.

• Committees regularly review how laws are being implemented and can pressure agencies or cut their budgets if they aren’t following Congress’s intentions

Why is there a 90% chance of getting re-elected? (Incumbents)

Advertising (not election ads):

• Members of Congress promote themselves by staying visible to the public

• serve their constituents: franking privilege (free mailing) to stay in touch

Credit Claiming:

• help constituents directly (casework)

• secure funding for local projects (pork barrel), often controlled by the party in power

Position Taking:

• publicly state their views on issues to build positive image

Weak Opponents:

• Challengers often unknown, inexperienced, poorly organized, or underfunded—though having more money doesn’t always cause victory

Gerrymandering:

• Drawing district lines to give a political party or group an unfair advantage

The Voting Rights Act of 1965

States can’t draw districts that weaken the voting power of racial or language minorities.
- 1980s, Congress strengthened the law to require states to redraw such maps

Hunt v. Cromartie (1999)

Supreme Court approved a gerrymandering of a congressional district, ruling that it did not qualify as pure racial gerrymandering

• determined that redistricting was based on prison populations (prison-based gerrymandering)

Prison-based Gerrymandering

• Prisoners are counted as residents of the district where they’re incarcerated, even though they can’t vote

• artificially inflates political representation in districts with prisons

Executive Powers (vested in President of the US)

• Leads the executive branch

• Can grant reprieves and pardons

• Makes treaties (Senate approval required)

• Appoints key officials (cabinet, ambassadors, judges; often needs Senate approval)

• Delivers State of the Union updates to Congress

• Can call special or emergency sessions of Congress

• Appoints and can remove U.S. officers

• Must swear to protect and defend the Constitution

Examples of Presidents Who Expanded the Executive Power

1793: George Washington & “Neutrality Proclamation” (Senate)

1803: Thomas Jefferson & Louisiana Purchase (Congress Purse)

1846: James Polk & Mexican War (Congress has power to declare War)

1861: Abraham Lincoln & Civil War (Congress has power to declare War)

2001: George W. Bush & war on terror (Pres. lied to Congress)

Constitution grants:

bureaucracy are in charge of all the complicated administrative actions associated w/ day-to-day operation of the gov’t w/ President policies in mind

• ensures rules being followed

Presidential Roles

• Chief Executive: administrators & executes the law & oversee the federal. bureaucracy

• Head of State: ceremonial & symbolic (holidays)

• Commander-in-Chief: negotiates & signs treaties, appoints diplomats, receives foreign officials

• Chief Legislator: sets public agenda, veto power

• Head of Party

Informal Sources of Presidential Power

Position: appoints power, control of national security apparatus

Prestige: bully pulpit, agenda-setting, national interests vs narrowly focused interests

Popularity: “going public,” rally-’round -the flag

Executive Orders

• legally binding orders given by Pres.

• used to direct federal agencies & officials in their execution of Congressional laws or policies

• “Hey Bureaucracy-interpret & execute law this way.”

• Inherent Power derived from: Vesting Clause & Take care Clause

*due to more Congressional Gridlock, presidents feel more obligated to make more executive orders to pass legislation

“Executive Actions”

any informal proposals or moves by the president

• vague & can be used to describe anything the President calls on Congress or his admin to do

• most executive actions carry no legal weight

*Presidents can NOT execute laws due to their belief that it’s unconstitutional

Executive Privilege

• President’s power to withhold information to protect national security, sensitive matters, or the public interest

• Can include refusing to testify in hearings or court

• Limit: Cannot be used to hide illegal actions or avoid embarrassment

Who checks the President?

Chief Executive, Commander-in-Chief, Chief Diplomat, Chief Legislator

*ultimate check on presidential power is impeachment & removal

Chief Executive check on President

• the U.S senate must approve presidential appointments

• Civil servants are protected from the president’s whims

• Congress controls the federal budget

Commander-in-Chief check on President

• only Congress can declare war

• congress controls the military budget

War Powers Act (1973)

• President must notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops

• Troops can stay in combat for 60 days (plus 30-day withdrawal) without Congress approval

• If Congress does not approve, troops must be withdrawn

Chief Diplomat check on President

• the senate must ratify treaties

• the senate confirms ambassadors

Formal powers of Congress during times of War

• to declare war, grant letters of marque & reprisal

• to raise & support armies

• to provide & maintain a navy

• provide for organzing, arming, disciplining, the militia

• to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union

The Role of Commander-in-Chief

• president can do anything he wants & can ignore the laws - not the Constitution

• above the law, is a King

• Grover Norquist (anti-tax advocate who is founder and president of Americans for Tax Reform)

Presidential Powers

• Executive Powers

  • Purpose: Run the executive branch

  • Expressed powers: Appoint officials, enforce laws

  • Inherent powers: Create the Cabinet

  • Executive orders: Direct federal agencies to carry out policies

  • Impact: Expanded executive branch from 4 to 15 departments over time

Emergency Presidential Powers

used during times of national crisis

• allows presidents to act quickly, sometimes without congress

(increased use overtime)

Derived from: commander-in-chief authority, and executive powers

Ex: George W. Bush after 9/11 attacks

Congress’s War powers (Article I)

• Military & Foreign Affairs

  • Only Congress can declare war

  • Controls military funding (“power of the purse”) – salaries, supplies, weapons, etc.

  • Can limit or authorize troop deployments (e.g., War Powers Act)

  • Ratifies treaties (Senate approval with 2/3 vote)

  • Confirms ambassadors and influences foreign policy

President’s War Powers

Commander-in-Chief

• Leads the armed forces; powers are broad and not clearly defined in the Constitution

• Can:

  • Send troops into battle

  • Negotiate peace

  • Deploy troops during national emergencies, civil unrest, or natural disasters

Bureaucracy

large complex administrative structure that handles the everyday business of an organization

Hiearchical Authority (Bureaucracy)

any organization that is built like a pyramid, with a chain of command running from the topy of the pyramid to the bottom

Job Specialization (Bureaucracy)

each bureaucrat, or person who works for the organization, has certain defined duties & responsibilites

Formalized Rules (Bureaucracy)

the bureaucracy does its work according to a set of established regulations & procedures

Civil Servants

• Civil servants are more demographically representative of the U.S. population

• Elected and appointed officials remain disproportionately white men

• positions are obtained through merit-based, not campaign connections

Patronage or Spoil System

“to the victors belong the spoils”

• principle not based on merit

• elections or war

Development of Civil Service System (Pendleton Act of 1883)

• Nonpartisan; hires and promotes based on merit (exams, skills, talent) rather than political connections

• Government workers keep their jobs even when a new party takes office

The Hatch Act of 1939

prohibits civil servants form engaging in political activities

Political Appointees

each newly-elected pres. has the task of filling thousands of executive appointments

• top jobs are listed in Plum Book, published by Congress

• President launch a nationwide search for talented/accomplished individuals to fill these posts