DOUG BIO 1103 - Midterm: Unit 1-10

Covers Units; Atoms and Molecules, Chemistry of Water, Biochemistry, Cells, Membrane Transport, Tissue, Body Structure, Homeostasis, Nervous System and Sensory Systems

Four common elements in the body and their percentages

Oxygen (65%), Carbon (18.5%), Hydrogen (9.5%), and nitrogen (3.2%).

Elements Essential for life

About 25 elements are known to be essential to life, and four of these oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter.

Non polar covalent bond

A type of chemical bond in which two atoms share electrons equally, an example being carbon dioxide (CO2).

Hydrogen bonds

Weak attractions that occur when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom is attracted to another electronegative atom in a different molecule.

properties of water in the body

Water serves four vital roles: it acts as a lubricant and cushion, aids in heat regulation, is involved in chemical reactions, and helps create liquid mixtures.

Synovial fluid

A viscous fluid produced by synovial membranes that lubricates joints, allowing for smooth movement.

Pleural fluid

A lubricating fluid that surrounds the lungs, facilitating lung expansion and contraction.

Fluids in the digestive tract

These fluids assist in the smooth passage of food through the digestive system.

Dehydration synthesis

A chemical reaction where two molecules are bonded together through the removal of a water molecule, often forming larger molecules.

Hydrolysis

A chemical process that breaks down complex molecules by the addition of water, effectively splitting water into hydrogen and hydroxide ions.

Water percentage in an infant

Approximately 75% water.

Water percentage in a senior

Approximately 45% water.

Water percentage in an adult male

Approximately 60% water.

Water percentage in an adult female

Approximately 50% water

Extracellular fluid compartment categories

The extracellular fluid is divided into two main categories: blood plasma and interstitial fluid.

Water percentage in intracellular and extracellular fluid

Approximately 60% of the body's water is found in the intracellular fluid, while 20% is in the extracellular fluid.

Functional groups important in human physiology

The five key functional groups relevant to human biology are hydroxyl (OH), carboxyl (COOH), amino (NH2), methyl (CH3), and phosphate (PO4).

Composition of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a typical ratio of 1:2:1.

Monosaccharides

The basic building blocks of carbohydrates include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Disaccharides

These are sugars formed from two monosaccharides, including sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates made up of chains of monosaccharides; examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Composition of sucrose

Sucrose is a disaccharide comprised of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule.

Composition of lactose

Lactose is a disaccharide formed from one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule.

Composition of maltose

Maltose is a disaccharide made up of two glucose molecules.

Polysaccharides composition

All polysaccharides are ultimately composed of glucose molecules.

Saturated vs unsaturated fats

1) Saturated fats are fats that are fully saturated with hydrogen atoms, possess only single bonds between carbons, are not bent in shape, and are typically solid at room temperature. 2) Unsaturated fats contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, resulting in a bent structure, and are usually liquid at room temperature.

Triglyceride function

Triglycerides serve as a major energy source, facilitate the absorption of non-polar vitamins (A, D, E, K), provide cushioning for organs and bones, and are components of cell membrane glycolipids.

Phospholipid structure

Phospholipids consist of two fatty acid chains, one glycerol backbone, and one phosphate group.

Source of steroids

Steroids are biologically derived from cholesterol.

Number of amino acids

In total, there are 20 different amino acids that are fundamental in forming proteins.

Essential amino acids

Out of the 20 amino acids, 9 are classified as essential, meaning they must be obtained through the diet.

Common elements in amino acids

All amino acids include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and in some cases, sulfur.

Peptide bond

A chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid, formed via dehydration synthesis.

Polar covalent bond

A type of bond where electrons are shared unequally, creating a dipole in the molecule, as seen in water.

Importance of phospholipids

Phospholipids are crucial as they constitute the structural framework of cell membranes.

Structural composition of steroids

Steroids are characterized by a structure comprising four interconnected hydrocarbon rings.

Unique feature of each amino acid

Every amino acid has a distinct R group, which determines its specific properties and functions.

Bonding in protein formation

When amino acids combine to form proteins, the amine group of one amino acid bonds with the carboxyl group of another.

Functional requirements for a polypeptide

For a polypeptide to function effectively as a protein, it must be coiled, folded, and bent into specific three-dimensional shapes.

Monomers of nucleic acid

Ribose and deoxyribose are the two sugar monomers involved in the construction of nucleic acids.

Nucleotide composition

A nucleotide consists of three components: a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Nitrogenous bases in DNA

The four nitrogenous bases found in DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

Nitrogenous bases in RNA

In RNA, the nitrogenous bases are adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine.

Location of DNA

DNA is primarily contained within the nucleus of the cell.

Location of RNA in the cell

RNA is located in both the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Structure of DNA

DNA consists of two polymers that are coiled into a double helix and held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases.

Organism with double-stranded RNA

The only organisms that can possess double-stranded RNA are certain types of viruses.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP is a nucleotide that serves as the primary energy carrier in living organisms.

Characteristics of living things

The six fundamental characteristics of living things include: 1) Organization 2) Metabolism 3) Exchange of materials 4) Responsiveness to stimuli 5) Movement 6) Development and reproduction.

Definition of organization

Refers to the systematic arrangement of cells into multicellular organisms, moving from organ systems down to molecular structures.

Definition of metabolism

Metabolism encompasses the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions, including both anabolic and catabolic processes.

Anabolism

Anabolic processes involve synthesizing larger and more complex substances from smaller, simpler molecules, for example, the formation of proteins from amino acids.

Catabolism

Catabolic processes involve breaking down larger, complex substances into simpler molecules, such as the conversion of glucose into water and carbon dioxide.

ATP function

serves as an energy-carrying molecule that, when broken down, powers various cellular activities.

Exchange of materials

Cells absorb nutrients and expel waste products through their cell membranes, maintaining homeostasis of substances.

Responsiveness to stimuli

This refers to an organism's ability to adapt to internal and external changes, such as responding to danger or regulating body temperature.

Definition of movement

Movement involves the motion of the entire organism, individual organs, single cells, or even minute structures within cells.

Development, growth, and reproduction

a) Development entails the progressive changes an organism undergoes throughout its life; b) Growth refers to an increase in size due to the multiplication of cells and accumulation of substances; c) Reproduction is the process where new organisms are produced from existing ones.

Levels of structural organization in the human body

The six levels of organization in the human body include: 1) Organismal 2) Organ System 3) Organ 4) Tissue Level 5) Cellular 6) Chemical.

Chemical level of organization

This level pertains to the organization of matter in terms of atoms and molecules, essential for life processes.

Cellular level of organization

A variety of molecules come together to form the organelles and fluid within a cell.

Tissue level of organization

Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that work together to perform specific functions, such as muscle or connective tissue.

Organ level of organization

An organ is composed of two or more tissue types that collaborate to carry out specific functions.

Organ system level of organization

An organ system is created when multiple organs work synergistically to fulfill the functions of the body.

Organismal level of organization

This level refers to the collective functioning of multiple organ systems that work together to sustain life in an independent organism.

Cytosol

Cytosol is the fluid portion of cytoplasm, comprising 70 to 80% water, necessary for facilitating biochemical reactions.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Synthesizes phospholipids and processes proteins made by ribosomes, packaging them into vesicles for transport to the Golgi apparatus.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

Responsible for synthesizing carbohydrates and lipids, detoxifying certain medications and poisons, metabolizing alcohol, and storing calcium ions.

Golgi Apparatus

This organelle consists of stacks of membranes that modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids coming from the endoplasmic reticulum.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are organelles containing digestive enzymes that break down organic molecules, recycle organelles, and destroy pathogens.

Vesicles

These are membrane-bound structures within cells that transport or store various substances.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis, composed of a large and small subunit, functioning through the assembly of amino acids.

Mitochondria

Known as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria produce ATP via cellular respiration through the breakdown of glucose.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the largest organelle, responsible for housing DNA and directing ribosome and protein synthesis.

Nuclear envelope

This structure consists of two lipid bilayers that encase the nucleus, forming a protective barrier.

Nuclear pores

Nuclear pores are openings in the nuclear envelope that allow selective passage of proteins, RNA, and other solutes between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Chromatin

Chromatin is composed of DNA strands and proteins, situated within the nucleus, and is involved in packaging DNA.

Cellular division

Cellular division is the process through which a cell splits to form two daughter cells, integral to growth and reproduction.

Cellular growth

Cellular growth refers to the increase in size of a cell.

Cell differentiation

This is the process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.

Stem cells

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells capable of giving rise to specialized cell types.

Molecules in diffusion

During diffusion, molecules move from regions of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

Diffusion rate and concentration

When the concentration of a substance is high, the rate of diffusion is also high.

Large molecules and the cell membrane

Large molecules do not readily pass through the cell membrane due to their size.

Channel proteins

Proteins that allow specific substances to diffuse through the cell membrane via pores.

Carrier proteins

Proteins that transport substances across the cell membrane by binding to them.

Non-polar parts of phospholipids

The non-polar portions of phospholipids consist of the fatty acid tails.

Factors affecting diffusion rate

The amount of ATP available does not influence the rate of diffusion.

Gaseous transport process

Gasses diffuse through the membrane by a process known as simple diffusion.

Net movement of water in cells with greater internal concentration

If the concentration of solutes is higher inside the cell relative to outside, water will move into the cell.

Na+/K+ pump function

The Na+/K+ pump uses ATP to transport 2 potassium ions (K+) into the cell and 3 sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell.

Endocytosis

A cellular process that moves particles into the cell through vesicle formation.

Exocytosis

A process that expels materials from the cell via vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.

Epithelial tissue in lungs and blood vessels

Simple squamous epithelial tissue is found lining the lungs and blood vessels for efficient gas exchange.

Epithelial tissue in glands and kidney tubules

Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue is located in small glands and the tubules of kidneys.

Epithelial tissue in the uterus

Simple columnar epithelial tissue lines the uterus, providing protection and secretion.

Tissue in the esophagus, mouth, and vagina

Stratified squamous epithelial tissue provides protective layers in areas subject to abrasion.

Epithelial tissue in sweat and mammary glands

Stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue is involved in secretion in sweat and mammary glands.

Epithelial tissue in the male urethra

Stratified columnar epithelial tissue is found in parts of the male urethra.

Non-connective tissue example

Epithelium is not regarded as a type of connective tissue.