AP psychology exam UNIT 1

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

long standing controversay over the relative contributions that genes and experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

evolutionary perspective

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mond, using principles of natural selection

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

behavior genetics

the study of relative power and limits of genetic and enviromental influences on behavior

mutations

random error in gene replication that leads to change

enviroment

every non-genetic influence from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

genes

the biochemical units of heerdity

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism

eugenics

science dealing with improving hereditary qualities

identical twins

individuals who developed from 1 fertilized egg that splits into, creating 2 genetically indentical organisms

faternal twins

individuals who developed from seperate fertilized eggs, genetically no closer than ordinary siblings but they share a prenatal enviroment

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

epigenetics

above in addition to (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which enviroments can influenece genetic expression (without DNA change)

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the PNS and CNS

nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the CNA with muscles, glands and sensory organs

CNS

brain and spinal cord

relfex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

autonomic nervous system

the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body to conserve energy

PNS

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

somatic nervous system

the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles

neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life support

dendrites

a neuron's bushy and brach-like extensions that recieve and integrate messages, conducting the impulses to the cell body

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through it's branches to other neurons, muscles and glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from node to the next

synpase

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap in this junction is called the synaptic gap

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, could play a role in learning, thinking and memory

relfex arc

direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

all or nothing principle

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

depolarization

the process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS and its replacement by plaques of sclerotic (hard) tissue

excitatory

accelerates neuron's firing speed

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

substance P

a neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

leptin

hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

melatonin

sleep-inducing hormone

refractory period

a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials can't occur until the axon to returning state

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

resting potential

the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood in the brain

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

acetylcoline

a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal chord, and parts of the PNS, responsible for muscle contraction

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

adrenaline

a hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress

ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach that sends the "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts

psychoactive drugs

a chemcial substance that alters the brains, causing changes in perception and moods

substabce use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blacks a neurotransmitters action

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

caffeine

a stimulant drug found in coffee, tea, cola drinks, chocolate, and many over-the-counter medications

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

methamphetamines

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

ecstasy

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

opioids

synthetic opiates that are prescribed for pain relief

heroin

narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive

addiction

everyday term for compulsive substance use that continues despite harmful consequences

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

reputake inhibitor

a class of drugs that work by blocking the reabsorption or reuptake of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, leading to an increase in availibilty and enchanced respone

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slows body function

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

alcohol

psychoactive substance that can impair brain function, leading to changes in behavior and cognitive abilities

hallucinogens

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

near death experiences

an altered state of conciousness reported after a close brush iwth death often similar to drug induced hallucinations

Marijuana

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug, aka an acid

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take a larger dose to feel the effect

withdrawl

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior

biological psychology

the scientific study of links between biological (genetic, neural and hormonal) and psychological processes

biopsychological approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biologocal and socio-cultural analysis

levels of analysis

differening complementary views from biological to psychological to socio-cultural for any phenomenon

Brain Plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experiences

EEG

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface where electrodes are placed on the scalp

MRI

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue (can show brain anatomy)

MEG

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity

CT

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET

technique for detecing brain activity that displays where a radioactuve form of glucose goes while the brain performs a task

fMRI

techinque for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing sucessive MRI scans (shows brain's structure and function)

lesions

tissue destruction; brain ones can occur naturally through surgery or through experiments

brain stem

contains the midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata; connects the brain and spinal cord; is life or death

hindbrain

-medulla, pons and cerebellum

-directs essential survoval functios like breathing, sleeping, wakefulness, coordination and balance

midbrain

atop the brain stem; connects the hindbrain with forebrain, controls motor movement and transmits auditory/visual signals

forebrain

cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus that does complex cognitive activities, sensory/association functions and voluntary motor activities

medulla oblongata

hindbrain structure that's the brainstem's base that controls heart beat and breathing