Politics - Paper 2 - USA v UK

To what exent does separation of powers exist in the USA?

2 For very sig.

2 for not very sig.

1. No person can simultaneously serve in both CONGRESS and the LEGISLATURE. Clinton resigned as senator for New York when made secretary of state

2. Prevents elective dictatorship. President’s policy must get through via Congress

1. US Supreme Court is one of the most politicised

2. Vice president (executive) is also the Senate president (Legislature)

President’s Checks on Congress (3)

• President vetoes acts or resolutions passed by Congress

  • Trump vetoed the removal of state of emergency status from US-Mexico border

• Presidents often threaten the veto to dissuade Congress from passing an unwelcome measure

  • Obama made four veto threats in 2015 State of the Union Address; stiffer Iran sanctions

• Presidents can issue executive orders to bypass needs for formal legislation

  • 2017 Trump introduced travel ban on visitors (‘Muslim Ban’)

CONGRESSES’ Checks on the COURTS (2)

• Congress can impeach federal justices

  • 2010 Louisiana Federal Judge was impeached for corruption by Congress

• Constitutional amendments can be done to overturn supreme court

  • 1896, court found national income tax to be unconstitutional but was reversed by 13th Amendment in 1913

PRESIDENT’S Checks on the COURTS(2)

• President nominates all federal justices

  • Obama appointed Sonia Sotomayor + Elena Kagan

• President can issue pardons and commutations

  • Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon

CONGRESSES’ Checks on PRESIDENT (3)

• Presidential veto can be overturned by a supermajority in BOTH houses

  • Congress overturned Obama’s veto of JASTA

• Senate can reject President’s decisions

  • Biden 2020 pick of Neera Tanden as Director of Budget didn’t secure enough votes

• Congress has the power of the purse

  • Congress REJECTED Trump’s attempt to get full funding for his Mexican border wall

COURT’S checks on the EXECUTIVE (2)

• Court can rule president’s actions as illegal

  • Hamdan v Rumsfeld 2006, Court ruled against George W Bush setting up special military trials for Al Qaeda

• Court can declare acts previous of Congress to be illegal

  • Defence of Marriage Act 2013 was ruled illegal

Is USA Constitution hard to amend formally?

• 2 for yes and for no

Yes

• Only 27 amendments in over 200 years

• Many amendments have been blocked like Death Penalty Abolition Amendment 1992

No

• Founding fathers wanted it be difficult WITHOUT widespread support

• Stops entrenched rights, Bill of Rights, from being taken away

Informal Updates to Constitution (2)

1. Right of those to ‘remain silent’

   1. Miranda Rights

2. Right of privacy to mobile phone data

   1. Carpenter v US 2018

Current Balance of Power B/T Individual States and Fed Govt

• States can legislate in areas… (3 points)

1. Able to legislate on abortion

   1. North Dakota has tightly restricted abortion

2. Death penatly

   1. Texas has death penalty but Alaska does not

3. States manage laws regarding elections

   1. Alabama had literacy tests barring blacks

Protection of Civil Liberties and Rights in US (2 examples of amendments)

1. First Amendment rights to free speech

2. Fifth Amendment rights to not incrimate oneself

How Well does US CONSTITUION protect individual rights?

VERY WELL and LESS WELL 2 points each

1. Bill of rights protects many rights

2. Constitution doesn’t stop Acts of Congress protecting rights like Equal Pay

1. rights can be undermined by congress (patriot act 2001)

2. some groups are not protected like children of gaygaygays

The Cabinet, Their Backgrounds Politically

- Name the 5 backgrounds and give an example

• Former Politicains

• Academics

• Epxertis in their field

• Lobbyists

• Millitary officers

Former politicians:

- Hillarly clinton served as Obama's secretary of state

Academics:

- Obama appointed Physicist Steven Chu as secretary of eneregy

Experts in their field:

- Steven Mnuchin, secretary of the treasury in 2017, was an invetment banker and hedge fund manager

Millitary Officerrs:

- Biden appointed retired general as secretary of defense

Lobbyists:

- Trump hired Andrew Wheeler, coal lobbyist as head of Evironmental Protection Agency

Executive Office of the President

- White House Office—who decides thet staff?

- National Security Council—what does it do?

White House Office

- Staff entirley decided by Presidenet

National Security Council

- Includes Vice President, Secretary of State + Other key secretaries of important deparmetnets. Manages US responses to domestic or international crises

An imperial or Imperriled Presidency

• 3 points for Nixon’s presidency being imperial and the counter from Ford

Nixon's presidency was imperial because:

- Authorised millitary intervention in Cambodia and Laos, without telling Congress

- Watergate, corrupt and illegal methods

- Continued the war in Vietnam without approval from Congress

However, Ford argued against this saying:

- The federal bureaucracy was impeding the government by stopping the agenda to reduce government intervention and spending

Emergenct Powers

- Emergency powers have been used to limit civil liberties in vairous ways

1. FDR ordered the internment of Jap-Americans during WW2

2. 9/11, GWB allowed terror suspects to be detained without trial

3. Obama laucned x10 drone strikes

4. Trump banned US citizens from travelling to EU countries

Does the USA have an imperial or an imperilled presidency?

IMPERIAL 3 POINTS:

IMPRERILLED 3 POINTS:

IMPERIAL 3 POINTS:

imperial presidency:

1. presidents can pass executive orders

2. president can use emeregency powers to get funding he wants

3. presidents have never been impeached

IMPRERILLED 3 POINTS:

imperilled presidency:

1. president usually asks congress before sending military

2. supreme corut may overturn exective orders like muslim ban

3. Congress can be controlled by opposition leading to gridlcok

Comparing abilit to pass Legislation In US AND UK

1 or us

3 for uk

US:

- us separation of powers means that president's powers are more limited

- President can suggest legislation to congress but may be rejected

UK:

- PM can pass leglislation easily

- PM can use powers of patronage to offer gov job to MPs as incentive to vote for legislation

- Whip system ensures strict party discipline

Comparing Financial Powers in US and UK

• uk structural theory leads to adjective describing passing budget

• us strucutral theory leads to what could potentially happen during budget each year

US:

- Difficult to reach agreement on President's budget each year, can EVEN lead to shutdowns

UK:

- Govt shutdowns do not happen, governemtn has majority so easy to pass budget

Comparing Military Powers in US and UK

• is there a legal need/convention in each nation?

US:

- Legal need for presidnet to declare war, but sometimes ignored

UK:

- No legal need but convention requires PM to ask parliament

Comparing Election of Leader & Term Limits in US and UK

US:

- President is direcrtly elected

- Presidnet cannot be elected for more than two terms

UK:

- PM is leader of elected party

- PM has no term limits

Who has greater power, the US PRESIDENT or the UK PM?

4 us and 3 for uk points each

President does:

1. President is the sole head of the executive, cabinet only informs him

2. President is the sole executive, commands millitary and is head of state

3. Presidents cannot be removed, unlike PMs, during a term of office

4. President has emergency powers—internment of Japs

PM does:

1. PM can use whip system and powers of patronage to DOMINATE MPs from their party

2. Pms do not have term limits

3. PMs with a large majority and party discipline have a 'elective dictatorship'

Comparing the Cabinet of The US and UK

3 points of US

3 points of UK

US Cabinet...

1. Cabinet nominees need senate confirmation

2. US cabinet officers are policy specialists in THEIR area

3. Cabinet officers are anyone the President wants (experts, lobbyits…)

UK Cabinet...

1. PMs can appoint whichever MP they want to cabinet

2. UK cabinet ministers tend to NOT be policy speicalists

3. memeber s of cabinet are elected MPs

Federalism (States’ Rights) vs Strong Central Governemtn Seen in Supreme COurt Rulings

• For State’s Rights Ruling 2 overturnings

• For uniform constitution 2 overtunings

For State’s Rights Ruling:

• Murphy v National Collegiate Athetlic Association 2018 was overtuned by Congress which meant that states could authorise sports gambling

• Roe v Wade was overturned which meant states could control Abortion laws

For uniform constitution:

• Obergefell v Hodges meant all states HAD to allow gay marriage

• DC v Heller meant that all states HAD to respect gun rights

Use Structural theory to compare the UK and US constitutions

• 3 points

UK has parliamentary sovreignty but the US congress was created to be checked by the Supreme Court

• US Supreme court can strike down laws as unconstitutional (Roe v Wade)

• UK courts cannot overturn legislation, only provide reccomendation

Federal v Unitary system

• The US states can have their own laws like controlling Abortion

• UK devolved nations’ legislation can be blocked by Westminster like; Scottish Gender Recognition Reform Bill 2023

Separation of Powers in US and NOT in UK

• US has clear separation so Congress can override a president’s veto (JASTA)

• UK doesn’t so whipping system ensures easy passing of legislation

Is the Supreme Court too Poliical?

• Yes, 3 points

• No, 3 points

YES:

1. Nomination of justices is HIGHLY politicised

2. Court effectivley acts as the third house to CREATE legislation

3. Court decided the outcome of 2000 Bush v Gore election

NO:

1. Justices are free from political influence as they have a life tenure

2. If Congress wanted, it could initiate amendment of constitution to overturn the court’s decision (Lilly Ledbetter)

3. Judicial activism is necessary to ensure equal rights (Brown v Topeka 1954)

Differences & Smiliarties in UK & US Judicial Branch

1. tenure of justices

2. judicial approach

3. characteristics of judges

Tenur of justicies:

• UK justtices must retire by 70

• US justices do not have a limit

Judicial Approach:

• Uk judges follow precdent

• Conservative US judges practic judicial restriant but some follow the ‘Living Constitution’ Approach and make decision to improve society

Characteristics of Judges:

• Women are underepresnted on both

• UK had a female president on the corut but US have never

Impact of UK & US Courts on

- Society Comparison

- Executive and legislature Comparison

- Federalism/Devolution

Impact on culture/society:

• Brown v Topeka led to END of racial segregation + Obergefell v Hodges led to GAY marriage legality in US

• UK has not made any judgments of the kind

Impact on the executive/legislature:

• US constitution is sovreign and so Supreme Court has ‘fundamental laws’ it can interpret to rule on laws passed by Congress (ALOT!(

• UK pariliament is sovereign so Supreme Court often defends parliament (R Miller v PM 2019) ruled that prorogation of parliament was illegal

Impact on federalism/dev:

• Both tend to support BIG GOVERNMENT vs devolved states. Supreme Court of UK blocked the UK Withdrawal from the EU (Scotland Bill) 2018 as Scotland couldn’t write it’s own EU laws

How does structural theory explain differences of US and UK supreme courts?

• similarties

• differences

SIMILARTIES:

• Security of tenure allows for INDEPENDENT judgements

• Separation of powers gives judicaries indepence from other branches of gov

DIFFERENCES:

• 'US courts can use ‘fundamental laws’ to become judicially activist and ‘legislate from the bench’

• UK court cannot do much because parliament is sovreign but in US consitituuion is sovreign

• US court has highly politicsed appointments but UK does not

How does rational theory explain supreme court’s of both nations?

• 1 difference

DIFFERENCE:

• US judges follow THEIR OWN biases when ruling on legislation. UK justices follow a RESTRAINED judicial approach

How does cultural theory explain similarities and differences of the two courts?

• 2 similarties

• 1 difference

SIMILARTIES:

• Both cultures prize the rule of law with a judiciary that holds the government to account

• Both cultures have had a populist trend of hating on the court. Trump warned that ‘any terrorist attacks’ should be blamed on the Supreme Court for banning his Musline Ban. Boris Johnson’s government — accused court of judicial ‘meddling’

DIFFERENCES:

• UK supreme court has a less high-profile court whilst the US supreme court makes high-profile judgments on abortion and GAY rights

Access Points of pressure groups in the US

• 2x access points compared to uk

Supreme Court;

• ACLU submitted amicus briefs to Obergefell and NAACP supported Brown v Topeka.

• UK less so, but recently Liberty Pressure Group won case to declare Public Order Act 2023 unlawful, furthering their aims

Governors:

• US has directly elected governors than can be lobbied ( pass important legislation like Governor Kasich who expanded Medicaid to + low income Ohioans)

• UK doesn’t have an equivalent in each region

comparing ways that pressure group involvement in us and uk politics

• 3x points total

1. Access to Decision-Makers

US: Insider groups regularly use iron triangles (NRA + Congress + gun manufacturers) to shape policy.

UK: Insider groups (CBI) gain access via consultations but face tighter limits due to party discipline and centralised executive power.

2. Use of Judicial Pathways

US: Groups use e.g., ACLU in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) (gay marriage)

UK: Limited until recently; Friends of the Earth used judicial review in Heathrow Expansion case (2020).

3. Political Campaigning & Finance

US: Super PACs (Priorities USA) spend millions due to First Amendment protections

UK: Spending capped; £390,000 limit in general elections. Groups like Unite must register

Pressure Group lobbying compared in us and uk

4x uk

3x us

UK:

• Industry Worth: £2 billion

• Lobby Ban: 2-year ban on ex-ministers lobbying (e.g. David Cameron scandal lobbying for Greensill Capital in 2021 legal)

• Transparency Rules: Lobbying Act 2014 – only covers consultant lobbyists, not in-house

• Scandal: ‘Cash for Questions’ (1994) – MPs accepted bribes for parliamentary questions.

US:

• Industry Worth: $3.47 billion

• Revolving Door: Dick Cheney (Halliburton link before VP role).

• PACs/Super PACs: Legal way for interest groups to fund campaigns – Citizens United v FEC (2010)

Comparing use of electoral campaiging as effective method used by pressure groups

• Used more widely in US x2

• Equal usage x1

Used more widely in US

• senators have strong incentive to keep financial backers happy as a seat costs $19 million but in the UK pressure group electoral spending is heavily restricted

• US pressure groups spend more heavily on tv advertising but pressure groups cannot do this in UK

Both

• Both use social media adversiting during elections

Comparing links to political parties of pressure groups US V UK

• Differences x3

• similarities x1

Differences x2

• Gun rights and pro-life supports GOP and vice versa for Dems

• UK are often charities so cannot endorse political candidates

• Trade unions, used to, have strong links to Labour Party but Democratic party does not have same links with AFL-CIO.

Similar:

• Both Dem party and Labour recieve large amounts of funding from big business pressure groups

• TU inlfuence is diminishing in both nations as both nations have 50% less union members now compared to 1970

Structural Differences that affect pressure group activity, usa v uk

• 3 structural differences and impact on pressure group actiivity

Sturctural difference

1. More powerful US SUPREME COURT

   1. Legal challenges are much more commonly used by us pgs than in uk

2. weaker trade unions in the us

   1. workers rights are better protected in uk

3. unlimted us election spending

   1. vastly more money is spent by us pressure groups in elections

Cultural Differences that affect pressure group activity, USA v UK

• 2 difference and sim

Individualism vs Collectivism

• USA Strong culture of individual rights → more single-issue groups (NRA)

• UK More trust in state solutions → more insider groups (BMA) work with gov

Methods Protest culture stronger in UK, litigation in USA

• USA First Amendment = strong legal activism → ACLU using courts

• UK Protests and direct action more common → Extinction Rebellion’s London

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Wealth and Access Matter

• USA Lobbying by wealthy PGs like PhRMA dominates Congress

• UK CBI has insider access

Role in Participation

• UK Greenpeace campaigns on climate

• USA Moms Demand Action post-school shootings

How effective is the us electoral system

-3 strenghts and3 eakensses

Strehgtns 3

1. clear results at each eleciion

2. lots of chancs for political participation —- us has many elections

3. primaries allow normal citizens to secltet party candidates

weakness 3

1. us system is two party only

2. there are many elections in the UK so voters suffer from voter fatiuge

3. two parties often control one branch of legislature each so girdlock is common—2018-19 border wlall funding during trump admin

American elections are…

3 chracterisitcs points

Frequent

Niched down onto the voters they want to attract (blacks, white evangelics)

Heavily spent on — 14Billion USD for 2020 election

What are the main 3x advantages and dsavantage sof the primary/caucaus system?

adv:

• They road-test candidates personality and knowedlge of policy isses

• ordinary people can discuss their views on caincidtates#

• boost poltical engamgnet as people an choose their party’s candidates

DSAV

• Turnout is low in prmaries and a March 2016 poll said that just 35% of voters think primariers are a good way of slecting the best nominees

• Outsiders rarely win like Bernie instead George H W Bush won

• caucaus meetings lack voter secrecy

Should the Electoral COllege be abolished?

3 argumetns for and gainst

Against the electoral colege:

• winner of popular vote can also not be the winner of the president like Gore in 2000 and Clinton in 2016

• Smaller states are overrpresented like Wyoming has almost 7x electoral votes per person than California

• Drawn up in a vastly different ‘founding farther’ era

agrgumnents for the elecotral college:

• Normally delivers the democratic result the opposite only occurs when the voting system has an error

• Nationwide vote would lead to candidates just focusing on large urban areas

• faithless electorshave never affected the final eleciton outcome

Factors that affect US elecgitons otucomes

• 3 factors and example

Incumbency

• this helps winning a new eleciton MASSIVLEY

  • 2018 incumbents who shought re-election won 90% of the time

• this is because they can show previous acheivements of having secured funding or created jobs

• Collin Peterson was re-elected despite being a DEmocract and his distrcit backing Trump, this was because he was a 30 year incumbent

Media

• attack ads are very effective for dissauding voters to not vote for another candiaes

  • Daisy ad of 1964 implied that a vbote for Goldwater could lead the USA into nucelar war

Money

• Lower spending candidates can still win

  • Trump was heavily OUTSPENT vy hillary clinton

Direct democracy in the usa

ballot initiatives:

• proposed by voters, if gets enough signatures then placed on the ballot at eleciton time

recall electons:

• voters can force an elected state official to face re-election before their full term is over

  • only ever happened to 2 governors, gray davis replaced by Schawrnnegger

referendums

• when state legislature passes law but is reuqired to pose it to the people for approval

  • albama 78% of voters supported putting the 10 commandments in court houses

Should campaign finance be regulated?

yes 3x

no 3x

yes:

1. electione expenditure boomed in 2020 almost 2xing 2016

2. need for fundraising (14m for senate seat) distracts senators from law making to fundrasiing

3. matching funding has died out since McCain accepted in 2008

no:

1. 2016 saw less spend than 2008 and 2012 so increasing expensditure is not continual

2. PACs and Super PACs must disclose donors so transparency exists

3. political donations are partt of the free market

how well does direct demo work in the us

• good and bad 3x each

Work well:

• Over 120 statewide measures in 2020 shows they’re popular and widely used.

• NRA backed a 2014 Alabama measure to strengthen gun rights.

• In 2022, California’s Prop 1 added the right to abortion to the state constitution.

Work badly:

• Low turnout 35% on non election years

• Big money dominates – Uber/Lyft spent $200m on Prop 22 (2020) to avoid classifying drivers as employees.

• Voters may lack expertise to make informed decisions on complex issues.

Why are there high abstnetion rates at preseidetial elections in the USA

• 3 rerasons

1. voters are requireed to register to vote

2. some ex-felons are barred from voting

3. some states make voting postal hard

Comparing Civil Rights

• 2 key legislations in each nation

US has Civil Rights Act 1964

UK has equality Act 2010

Post Terror Attacks Legislation

two pieces of leg. one each

USA Partiot Act 2001 —- gov can carry out searches of homes, businesses and phone records WITHOUT a court order

Terrorism Act 2005 (repealed in 2011) — potential terrorists can be tagged, have internet restricted and be put on curfew without EVIDENCE

Comparing Women’s Rights

• sexual harassment

• abortion differences

Both nations saw ‘metoo’ and ‘timesup’ campaigns

debate on abotion has been most-different:

• None of the main uk parties want to ban abortion and has been legal since 1967

• US has now been overturned — 56% of americans consider themselves religious

Rights of LBGT people in UK and USA

Both Conservatives and Reps are against increasing their rights 1x exmaple for each nation

Both Conservatives and Reps are against increasing their rights:

• Trump was opposed to the supreme court judgements to BAN employers from firing their employees for being transgender

• BoJo cancelled govt plans to mkae legal gender change easier

Comapring effectiveness of civil rights campaigns

Methods used

2x differncees

1x similarties

Differences:

• US Pressure groups use the courts more frequently, as supreme court is more powerful in strilking down legislation

• US pressure groups SPEND far more money, as there are no limits on election spend

Similarities:

• Both use marches, rallies, lobbying

Theoretical Approaches

Structural

3 points of strucutral difference of civil rights

Entreched v Flexible Constitutuions

• Entrechment of civil liberties in the US consitution means that libertiers are more protected than in the UK

Sovreignty of US consitution

• Parliament is sovreign so elected parlaiment decides. USA consituiton is soverign so supeme court decides

Campaign Finance Rules

• Different rules on political donations have resulted in USA pressure groups spending a lot more on political campaigning than in the UK

Theoretical Approaches

Rational

2 points of rational similartiy of civil rights

Similatiy:

• infirngment of an individual’s rights have sparked campaigns in both countries

  • Brown v Topeka

  • Gurka v Secretary of State

• Politicans also decide to expand civil rights

  • Lydon b Johnson passed Civil Rights Acts 1964

  • PMBs passed Abortion Act 1967

Theoretical Approaches

Cultural approach on simulates and differences between US and UK civil rights

2x points for both nations

2x points for difference

Long-standing racial inequalities

– Both nations have experienced systemic racism (e.g. US: post-slavery segregation; UK: Windrush scandal).

Civil rights movements emerged culturally

– Influenced by grassroots activism (US: 1960s civil rights movement led by MLK; UK: 1970s anti-racism protests like the Bristol Bus Boycott).

---

Constitutional context

– US rights embedded in Bill of Rights and Supreme Court rulings (e.g. Brown v. Board of Education), while UK relies on evolving statute law (e.g. Equality Act 2010).

Role of race in national identity

– In the US, race is central to national debate and political identity (e.g. Black Lives Matter, culture wars). In the UK, race is more marginalised in mainstream politics, often framed as immigration or multiculturalism issues (e.g. 2020 BLM protests had less political impact).

Democrat Party Principlies

What are the 4 key democrat party principlies?

1. Government welfare

   1. Big government can empower individuals by ensuring their basic needs are met

2. Economic Fairness

   1. Democrats want to continue reversing Trump tax-cuts

3. Healthcare Access

   1. Democrats want to lower prescription drug costs

4. Civil Rights and Euqality

   1. Democrats support the Equality act which would ban discrimination against GAYs

GOParty Principlies

What are the 4 key rep party principlies?

1. Border SECURITY 🔒

2. Tax Cuts ✂

3. Increase Oil Usage 🛢

4. Restricting Abortion 👶

Associated Groups

0 Share similar characterisiticxs with big parties but are their own serpatate structure

0 democrat example

ex:

• Democratic Socialists of America

• Despite their own mebership they work to secure victory of MOST progressive democrats in elections

Big changes in us parties over the last 50 years

WHAT ARE THE 3 FACTORS

Geography

South — demoract → republican

• 1976 was the last time a Democrat won all the south

Ideaology

Both parties have become more liberal or more conservative

• Republicans adopted.. to win the south

  • Strong law and order side — combat ‘68 riots

  • Opposition to forced diversity

  • Traditional values

Party discipline

Bipartisanship → Uniformity

• Civil Rights Act 1964 (69% of democrats) → 0 Republicans voted to impeach trump

How united are US Parties today?

3 points for each side

Very united:

• 2018 — 90% of party members stuck with thier party

• Since 1994 parties often have manifestos (2018 Better Deal program)

• Both parties are cohesive on abortion and guns

Very divided:

• INFRASTRUCTURE BILL 2021, BACKED BY BIDEN. 19 REPUBLICAN SENATORS AND 13 HOUSE REPBLICANS VOTED WITH DEMOCRTAS TO PASS INFASTRCTURE BILL and House passed bipartisan CARES act (covid)

• House republicans voted with demcorats to oust Kevin McCarthy (house speaker) 2023, Freedom Cacus + Matt Gaetz with Dems

• Ben Staffe (prominentn Rep senator) and MORE opposed Trump’s policies like; Steel tariffs on EU imports 2018

The Main Factions in Each Party

democrats, the factions, two brief points on each

Blue Dog Coalition 🔵 🐶

• Neutral line on woke stuff

• Fiscal responsibility

New Democrat Coailition 🟡

• Largest faction

• Centrist wing

Congressional Progessive Caucaus 🌈

• Most gay and liberal

• Environmental protection and energy indepence

The Main Factions in Each Party

republicans, the factions, two brief points on each

Tuesday Group 🔵

• Moderate responsibility

Republican Study Committee ❤

• Largest faction

• Small government

• Traditional values

Freedom Caucaus ⚫ 🟨

• Social conservatism

• Libertarianism

Are US Parties in decline or in renweal?

In decline:

• Most party names and symbols are absent from president’s ads and posters 📛

• Most rallies and ads created and paid for by candidates not the party 💵

• National Party Convetions are insignifcant — due to power of primaries, it is just a telivised convetion to demonstrate party unity but presidential candidate nominee is practically already confirmed 📺

In renewal:

• Personal message of candidates aligns with party policy 🎉

• Split ticket voting has decreased in recent decades, 2016 saw 100% alignment between senate and presidential vote 📏

• Voter turnout is higher that it was in 1996 👈

Significance of third parties of independants

-arguments for singifncance x3 and against

Arguments for singifcance of third parties:

• 3rd parties bring attention to issues — Green party pressures Dems on environemntal policy

• Can alter outcomes of election! Ralph Nader won 100K votes in florida helping Bush beat Gore

• Some indpenedts win local elections — Bernie sanders has won vermont senator

Aguments against signfiicance of third parties:

• Electoral system makes them weak — Ross Peort won 19% of electorate but 0 ECVs

• Lack of media coverage — Libertarian candidate was exluced from all presidential debates

• See third parties as wasted vote (many lefts didn’t vote Green)

How do US pressure groups achieve thier aims?

• 3 methods

1. Voter scorecards

   1. US Chamber of Commerce releases a ‘how they votrd’ scorecard for each member of congress. NRA grades each candidate from A to F on voting record for gun rights

2. Lobbying

   1. Goldman Sachs and JP Morgan had ove 350 meteings with federal agencies from 2010-’12

   2. Ballard Partners helped Trump lobby Flordia gov so then when T became president, Ballard Partners gained 100 clients in 2 years

3. Using the Coruts

   1. NAACP — Brown v Topeka

   2. Amicus Cuaraei briefs, 148 submitted to Obergefell v Hodges 2015

Disadvantages of Lobbying

Spening always equate to victory

• NRA spent 30 million for Trump in 2016 but was ‘dissapointed’ as the administration then banned bump stocks, which make semi-automatic rifles fire much faster

• Hilarty Clinton got way more money in 2016 for President but lost to Trump

Iron Triangle/Revolving door

• 3 evidence for its existence

• members of congress have personal investments in defence companies, 51 memebers of congress owned a combined 5.8$ million worth of shares in defence companies

• Some members sit on defence committees receive substantial donations — joe courtney who oversaw naval and marine corps contracts had defence contractors as his biggest contibtuor in 2019

• Big Pharma, lobby congressional committees key members like Anna Eschoo who received hundreds of thousands of $$$ from big pharma in 2020

Which are more powerful, pressure groups of political parties?

• 2 for and against

**FOR Pressure Groups being more powerful:**

- Continuous Influence vs. Electoral Cycles

Pressure groups like the NRA or CBI lobby governments year-round, regardless of who is in power.

- Specialist Resources & Expertise

RSPB influenced UK policy on HS2 environmental damage.

**AGAINST – Political Parties are more powerful:**

- Control of Government and Legislation

Only parties form governments and pass laws ( Conservatives 2019–present enacting Brexit policies).

- Pgs rely on parties to pass legislation

Depend on political parties to act on their demands. Trade Union Congress (TUC) needs a Labour to enact pro-worker reforms

do pacs and super pacs have too much influence in US elections?

• yes / no 2x

ye:

1. super pacs are funded by a tiny minority of citizens — less than 1% of americans provided 2/3 of funding for federal candidates in 2016

2. increased infuence of super pacs has made democratic will of the people less strong than pressure groups

no:

1. High spending doesn’t guarantee votes.

   1. Example: 2020 – Michael Bloomberg spent $1 billion and won only American Samoa.

2. PACs and Super PACs cannot coordinate directly with campaigns.

   1. Example: 2016 – Jeb Bush had strong Super PAC support but still lost early.

Are pressure groups in the USA too powerful?

• yes no 3x

yes — too powerful:

1. they are eltisit, well-funded groups have more influence than smaller groups

2. iron triangles lead to exec taking decisions that don’t benefit the people — vietnam war

3. amicus curaie briefs favour wealthy pressure groups that can afford to fund them

no — not too powerful:

1. pressure groups are essential to pluralism and protected by 1st amendment

2. social movements are an alternative (cheap!) to pressure groups — civil rights movement for african-american in 60s

3. legislators are accounable every 2 - 6 years so americans can vote to remove them

Protections of civil rights — Structural differences

USA:

→ Codified constriction - rights are entrenched (Bill of Rights)

→ SCOTUS can use judicial review to change protections (Roe v Wade)

→ Federalism means states have varying levels of protection (Texas enforces use of toilets based on sex whilst California banned conversion therapy)

→ Life-time appointed judges so they are free from political pressure

UK:

→ Uncodified constitution, rights are just protected by statues - but easily adaptable

→ No judicial review

→ Parliamentary sovereignty leads to weak protection during crises (Investigatory Powers
Act 2016)

Evaluation:

→ US is weak structurally — rights are entrenched but this leads to rigidity blocking progress

→ UK is strong structurally — rights are more vulnerable to political shifts but highly adaptable

Protections of civil rights — Cultural differences

USA:

→ Bill of Rights sacred - rights violations spark opposition (protests against Snowden data collection led to USA Freedom Act to limit data collection)

→ Culture of taking issues to court to protect civil rights (Masterpiece Cakeshop v Colorado)

→ Protest culture, Civil Rights marches like 1965 Selma Montgomery marches led to protection of minority rights - Voting Rights Act 1965

→ “Tyrannical” government mistrust - court has strong checks on legislative powers to defend rights (Trump’s attempt to remove Deferred Action was blocked)

UK:

→ Less legal activism (although recent examples like “Liberty” overturning Public Order Act 2023)…

→ …preference for political protections - Marriage Same Sex Couples Act 2013

→ Emphasis on collective welfare, public largely supported Covid lockdown measures

→ Support for parliamentary sovereignty - Investigatory Powers Act 2016, damaging civil rights

Evaluation:

→ US is stronger culturally — citizens value individual rights and can make significant changes through the courts

→ UK is weaker culturally — citizens prefer to defer to parliament and trust institutions more

Protections of civil rights — Rational differences

USA:

→ Courts have strong powers to strike down leg. (NAACP in Brown v Topeka and ACLU in Dobbs)

→ Judicial appointments chosen by president (Trump: “a woman of great faith and she will rule based on the Constitution) so can support/strongly oppose president

UK:

→ Parties can limit civil rights to gain support (Cons proposed removing ECHR with British Bill of Rights)

→ Media is used as a tool to achieve aims of Pressure groups on civil rights, Amnesty UK on Chagos Islanders’ rights

Evaluation:

→ US is weak rationally — strong ability to protect but also put in danger civil rights via the courts

→ UK is weak rationally — system depends on parliamentarian’s will

2024 USA Election

ECVs

→ 312 for Trump

→ 226 for Harris

Percentage

→ 49.8% for Trump

→ 48.3 for Harris

Democratic Platform

• Abortion

• Strengthening Affordable Care Act

• Continuing Ukraine and Israel support

Republican Platofrm

• Isolationist

• Anti-transgender policies

• Skepticisim of UKR

Why Trump Won

• Gains with working class

• Unpopularity of Biden

• Inflation surge from 21-’23

2024 UK Election

Role of FPTP

• Most undemocratic in history

• Starmer won 1.8x seats than votes, on just 34% of vote

Election Facts

• Second lowest turnout in post-war of 59.4%

• Everyone knew Labour would win, so even Labour voters stayed home

• Many Lib-dem and Labour voters voted tactically to kick out tories

Lib-dems

→ Won 71 seats (HIGHEST ever!)

Reform

→ Gained 4 seats on 14% of vote

Conservatives

→ Lost 225 seats

Labour

→ Mainly won due to anti-tory sentiment

Congressional Committees

• 3 functions

1. legislative scrutiny

• Congressional committees can review bills

  → Most bills DIE at this stage

2. oversight of exec.

• Congressional committees can monitor the executive

  → Increases accountability as high profile during Watergate

3. confirmation of justices

• Congressional committees review nominations before the senate vote

  → Hearing for Brett Kavanaugh was high profile, showing significance

Rational theory to explain voting behaviour

• 3 explanaitons with examples

1. Issue voting

• voters choose party based on best match with their own interests

  → UK, fall of the red wall

2. Economic voting

• voters choose party who will best manage the economy

  → UK conservatives were rewarded in 2015 for handling post-2008 economy well

  → US Obama was also rewarded for handling this well in 2012

3. Tactical voting

• voters may support the candidate that opposes the party they HATE

  → UK voting for Lib Dems is common to oppose the tories

  → US voters chose Dems or Reps to avoid wasting votes on Greens

Ways the Bill of Rights Protects Civil Rights and Liberties

• 3 ways it does with supreme court cases to support the amendment mentioend

1. protection of free speech

• freedom of speech without fear from government censorship

  → Tinker v Des Moines, Supreme Court upheld 1st amendment right for students to wear armbands in protest

2. protection from unreasonable searches

• warrants are needed for searches

  → Mapp v Ohio evidence obtained illegally is inadmissible in court

3. right to fair trial

• protection against self-incrimination

  → Miranda v Arizona, suspects must be informed of their rights when arrested

Democratic Congressional Factions

• Name the 3

• key policies of each

1. Progressive caucus

• Most left wing

• Universal healthcare

• Environmental protection

• Income equality

2. New democrat coalition

• Centrist

• Pro-growth policies

• Seeks to bridge the gap across the aisle

3. Bluedog

• Conservative

• National security

• Moderate towards abortion

Partisan dealignment in the USA

• is this currently the case? give 2 peices of evidence for an against

Partisan re-aligments in the USA

• name the two cases

• 2014, gallup poll — 42% claimed to be ‘independant’

• However only 10% actually claim they are ‘definite independents’

Partisan re-alignments

1. Economic crisis on 30s’

   • Created more support for Democrats, with the New Deal Coalition dominant until Truman

2. 1960s & 70s

   • Democratic party became much more fiscally and social LIBERAL

     • Medicare/medicaid

     • Desegregation

   • Republicans (Goldwater) was opposed to the Civil Rights Act so gained in the ‘South’ & Nixon created the Southern Strategy

     • Prayer in school

     • States rights

Invisible Primaries

• how do we know who wins x3

• when is it

• Before the actual primary

How do we know who won?

• Endorsements — candidates that win the most endorsements usually win nomination

• Fundraising — the more funding raised, the stronger it looks

• Polls — low polling candidates freuqnetly drop out before elections

Affirmative Action

• what is it

• who started it

• Affirmative actions are measures that are adopted to compensate previous discrimination because just stopping discrimination doesn’t make people free (positive freedom-Th Green)

Started by

• Nixon during the Philadelphia Plan 1970 — states had to hire more minority workers and achieve certain DEI targets

Challenges

• U. California v Bakke 1978

  • Bakke sued when rejected a place because 16% were reserved for blacks.

  • Supreme Corut ruled that it violated the 14th Amendment ✓

• California Prop 209, 1996

  • California banned use of Affirmative Action

• Students for Fair Admissions v Harvard, 2023

  • Considering race as a factor in admissions was unconstitutional

How effective is the law making process?

Congress

Has the legislative process become too GRIDLOCKED?

Yes

1. Fewer bills passed compared to ‘60s

2. Increase in use of filibusters

3. Party disunity has increased with more rebellious factions — Reps. failed to pass the ‘Obamacare’ Replacement Act

No

1. Bills have become longer (+6000 pages of law per year compared to 1920s)

2. Both parties greatly value filibusters when in the opposition

3. Increased debate which incorporates more party views — BlueDog Dems changed Build Back Better Bill to avoid social policies

Has the process become dominated by SPECIAL INTERESTS?

Yes

1. Omnibus bills (super loooong) so receive little scrutiny

2. Restricted opportunities for amendments

No

1. Omnibus bills streamline the legislative process

2. Restricted opportunities mean that obstructionist tactics are blocked

Advantages of US direct democracy?

Advantages

1. Helps ensure that state laws are supported by the people — Arkansas Minimum Wage Initiative showed people wanted minimum wage increase but wouldn’t have happened without the vote (Rep senator & governor)

2. Encourages political enthusiasm — Alaska turnout of 2014 midterms increased due to having a CONROVERSIAL prop on minimum wage

Disadvantages of Direct democracy

Disadvantages

1. Founding fathers avoided direct democracy because it led to tyranny of majority — voters wouldn’t support an increase in taxes like in Michigan

2. Low turnouts, questionable mandates — only 21% of voters in Colorado voted for Senator Morse’s recall

How do

- Gender

- Income

Race

Religion

influence voting behaviour in elections

Gender

• Women are more likely to vote DEM

  +10% avr. vote Dem vs Rep

Income

• DEM get more broke voters

  Obama 63% of vote under 30k

Race

• 86% of blacks voted for Kamala

Religion

• 82% of evangelicals voted Trump

Has there been a renewal of PARTIES in the last decades?

• yes 2 with evidence and no

✓Increase in partisan voting in congress

• 2013-14, 92% of the time REP voted with party

• Obamacare 2010, passed without a single REP vote

✓More people think there are important diffs between REP & DEM

• 80% thought this in 2008

---

✗Super PACs have gained power

• Can spend an unlimited amount on attack ads, making outsiders (not parties) valuable to candidates

✗Parties are still big tents, with division

• Blue Dogs can agree with Main Street REP

How do insiders lobby congress?

• 3x ways

How?

Providing Value

• Congressmen want lobbyists to give them info to help them pass laws

Scorecards

• NRA uses scorecards, so if the NRA is strong in the congressmen’s state then they may be motivated to follow NRA voting reccomendation

Incumbents Spending

• Can build strong relationships over time

How do outsiders lobby congress?

• 3x ways

VIOLENT Direct Action

• “Wanted” posters made for Abortion clinic staff

Petitions

• Mothers Against Drunk Driving used petitions to achieve fatalities of alcohol dropping by 40% as they got Reagan to pass legislation

Direct Action

• Marches were used by Civil Rights Movement → Civil Rights Act 1964

US Constitution on Federalism

Different types of power:

US Govt Domination Over States:

Horizontal Federalism:

Different types of power:

• Reserved powers → Any powers not given to feds should be held by state

• Delegated powers → Powers given by the states to the big government

US Govt Domination Over States:

• Supremacy clause, if state law and big govt law conflict then the GOVT wins

• US govt has implied powers, if its necessary & proper

Horizontal Federalism:

• Gives state greater power as their laws must be given “full faith and credit” so are respected in other states

What was ‘Co-operative Federalism’

• 1937 → 1960s

• How it began 3x reasons

• what was it like 2x

3 Reasons how

1. Massive crisis of Great Depression

2. Election of F D Roosevelt

3. 16th Amendment of 1913 allowed federal govt to use income taxes

What was it like

1. Massive new grants that expanded federal government into ex-state areas

2. Supreme court accepted new role and interpreted the ‘commerce clause’ more broadly

What was ‘Coercive Federalism’

• 1960 → 1970

• How it began 2x reasons

• what was it like 2x

2 Reasons how

• Increasing de-segregation supported by Supreme Court and government led to conflict between Southern States VS Eisenhower

• Government wanted to tackle poverty and racism

What was it like

1. States had to get federal approval to change their voting process → stopping southern states from doing literacy tests

2. Food stamps, ‘Head Start Program’ and Social Security Act all expanded federal grants to the max

What was ‘New Federalism’

• 1970 → 1990

• How it began 2x reasons

• what was it like 2x

2 Reasons how

• Nixon wanted new Federalism where Washington gave money and power to states to control their own affairs

• Supreme Court became more conservative and began to oppose BIG GOVERNMENT

What was it like

1. Block grants, money given to states with control over how to SPEND

2. Reagan reduced environmental & healthcare regulations on the states

Enumerated powers of the president?

→ powers clearly granted to the US president

• 3 powers with examles 9 mark style

Commander in chief of the Military

• President receives troops

President can pardon Federal Crimes

• Ford pardoned Nixon

Nominate judges & ministers with approval from Senate

• DJT nominated 3 justices to the S.C