Teas 7 Human Anatomy and Physiology

Sagittal Plane

Divides the body, or any body part, vertically into and left sections. Runs parallel to the midline of the body

Coronal(frontal) Plane

Divides the body, or any body structure, vertically into front and(anterior and posterior) sections. Runs vertically through the body at right angle to the midline.

Transverse(horizontal) Plane

Divides the patient's body into imaginary upper(superior) and lower(inferior) halves.

Medial

means nearer to the midline of the body

Lateral

is the opposite of medial. Refers to structures further away from the body's midline, at the sides

Proximal

refers to structures closer to the center of the body

Distal

Refers to the structures further away from the center of the body

Anterior

Front body structures

Posterior

Back body structures

Cephalad or cephalic

are adverbs meaning towards the head.

Cranial is the skull

Caudad

Is an adverb meaning towards the tail or posterior.

Caudal means hindquarters

Superior and Inferior

above, closer the head

below, closer the feet

Abdominal Regions

Right Hypochondriac- right kidney, liver, gallbladder, and small intestines

Epigastric- stomach, liver, adrenal glands, pancreas, spleen

Left Hypochondriac- left kidney, spleen, pancreas, colon

Right Lumbar- ascending colon, liver, gallbladder

Umbilical- small intestines, duodenum, umbilicus

Left Lumbar- descending colon, left kidney

Right lilac- cecum, appendix

Hypogastric- bladder, female internal reproductive organs, sigmoid colon

Left iliac- descending and sigmoid colon

Abdominal Quadrants

Right upper quadrant- Duodenum, part of the ascending and transverse colon, hepatic flexure, liver, gallbladder, pancreas(head) right kidney, and right adrenal gland

Right lower quadrant- cecum, appendix, right ureter, right fallopian tubes, and right ovary

Left upper quadrant- stomach, liver, pancreas, left kidney, left adrenal gland, splenic flexure, spleen, part of transverse and descending colon

Left lower quadrant- left ureter, left fallopian tube, left ovary, part of descending colon, and sigmoid colon

Ventral Cavity

Thoracic Cavity- is above the diaphragm and contains the lungs and the mediastinum, which separates the cavity into right and left compartment. The heart, trachea, esophagus, and thymus gland lie within the mediastinum.

Abdominopelvic cavity- extends below the diaphragm to the pelvic floor, contains the upper abdominal cavity and the lower pelvic cavity. The organs within the abdominal cavity include the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys, pancreas, intestines. The pelvic cavity, encased in the pelvic bones, contains the internal reproductive organs, the bladder, and the distal part of the colon.

Dorsal Cavity

Cranial cavity- encased in cranial bones at the bottom and the skull cap the top, this cavity contains the brain, the 12 cranial nerves, and the pituitary gland. The meninges line the cavity and surround the brains and the spinal cord and contain CSF between the arachnoid mater and pia mater in the subarachnoid space. The meninges and CSF protect and cushion the dorsal cavity.

Vertebral cavity- contains the vertebrae and the spinal cord. The meninges extend from the cranial cavity to enclose the vertebral cavity.

Cardiovascular system

Transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, ions, and fluids throughout the body and removes metabolic wastes.

Heart function

Epicardium-outer layer, which protects the heart and secretes lubricating serous fluid

Myocardium-middle layer, which contracts to pump blood.

Endocardium- innermost layer, which lines the chambers and valves

Chambers of the heart and their function

The superior "receiving" chambers are the atria

Right atrium- receives blood from the vena cava

Left atrium- receives blood from the pulmonary veins

The muscular "discharging" chambers are the ventricles

Right ventricle- pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk

Left Ventricle- pumps blood into the aorta.

Tricuspid valve (right AV valve)

Prevents back flow of blood into the right atrium when the ventricle contracts

Pulmonary semilunar valve

prevents the return of blood into the right ventricle.

Bicuspid valve(left AV valve)

prevents blood from entering the left atrium when the ventricle contracts.

Blood flow in the heart

-Oxygen poor blood enter right atrium and flows into right ventricle via vena cava

-Blood is pumped from right ventricle into pulmonary artery (goes into lungs)

-Oxygen rich blood returns to heart via pulmonary vein and enters left atrium and flows into left ventricle

-Blood is pumped into the aorta and circulated to body

Circuits of the heart

Systematic- carries blood from the muscular left ventricle of the heart to the aorta.

Pulmonary- carries blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. Arteries have less oxygen than the veins.

Cardiac cycle

P wave- first phase of the cycle and corresponds to the wave of depolarization that spreads from the sinoatrial node to the atria.

Q wave- is seen as the negative wave on ECG, small duration. second phase.

R wave- is a positive wave and is the predominant portion of the QRS complex and is followed by the S wave.

T wave- represents ventricular repolarization, or recovery of the ventricle. It is longer than the QRS complex and is followed by U wave.

Arterial and venous systems

Tunica intima- innermost layer, Tunica media- consists of smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers. Tunica adventitia- outermost layer.

Elastic arteries- includes the aorta and major branches. Tunica media has more elastin, and are the largest vessels. Recoils under low pressure

Muscular arteries- arteries that branch off the elastic arteries. Regulates blood flow by vasoconstriction/dilation.

Arterioles- tiny vessels that lead to the capillary beds. Primary vessels involved in vasoconstriction/dilation, control blood flow to capillaries.

Venules- Empty blood into larger veins

Veins- carry blood back to the heart

Mechanoreceptors

respond to changes in pressure or tension. Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's disks, Pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini endings are mechanoreceptors.

Chemoreceptors

olfactory and taste receptors detect the presence of chemicals

Photoreceptors

rod and cone cells of the eye respond to light.

Thermoreceptors

sense both absolute temperature and changes in temperature

Nociceptors

detect pain

brain function

patterns of brain activity

Cranial Nerves

Olfactory- smell

Optic-sight

Oculomotor- moves the eye up and down, left to right

Trochlear- moves the eye up and down, left to right, and diagonally

Trigeminal- largest of the cranial nerves; chewing, face sensation

Abducens- moves the eye up, down, left, right, and diagonally

Facial- facial expression and anterior two-thirds of the tongue

Vestibulocochlear- sound

Glossopharyngeal- swallowing, saliva, and taste

Vagus- control of the PNS

Accessory- swallowing and movement of the head and neck

Hypoglossal- speech and swallowing; tongue muscles

Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine(ACH)- stimulates skeletal muscle

Norepinephrine(NE)- influences mood and sleep patterns

Dopamine- associated with mood, attention, reward system, and movement

Histamine- works with the hypothalamus, promotes wakefulness

Serotonin- many roles- mostly inhibitory. Influences sleep, mood, hunger, arousal

GABA- the major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate- the major excitatory neurotransmitter

Range of motion(Sagittal)

Flexion- decrease the angle between two body parts(bending the elbow)

Extension- increasing the angle between two body parts(straightening the elbow)

Dorsiflexion( ankle flexion(moving the toes toward the shin)

Plantar flexion- ankle extension( moving the toes toward the ground)

ROM(Frontal)

Adduction-toward the body

Abduction-away from the midline

Elevation- scapula movement, superior movement

Depression-scapula movement, inferior movement

Inversion- lifting the medial border of the foot

Eversion- lifting the lateral border of the foot

ROM(transverse)

Pronation- rotating the hand and wrist medially from the bone.

Supination- rotating the hand and wrist laterally from the bone

Horizontal adduction- the angle between two joints decrease on the horizontal plane

Horizontal abduction- the angle between two joints increases on the horizontal plane

Rotation- pivoting or twisting on the axis

Hormones of the head and neck

GnRH(gonadotropin RH)- stimulates anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH

GHRH(growth hormone RH)- stimulates anterior pituitary to release GH

GHIH(Growth hormone IH)- inhibits the release of GH from the anterior pituitary

TRH(thyrotropin RH)- stimulates anterior pituitary to release thyrotropin(TSH)

PRH(prolactin RH)- stimulates anterior pituitary to release prolactin

PIH(prolactin IH)- inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary

CRH(corticotropin RH)- stimulate anterior pituitary to release ACTH

Oxytocin- targets the uterus to stimulate contractions, targets the mammary glands for milk secretion

ADH- targets the kidneys and blood vessels to increase water retention

Pituitary Gland Hormones(anterior)

TSH(thyroid stimulating hormone)- targets the thyroid, stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones

ACTH(adrenocorticotropic hormone)- targets the adrenal cortex, stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

GH(Growth hormone)- targets muscle and bone, stimulates growth

FSH(follicle stimulating hormone)- targets the gonads, stimulates the maturation of sperm cells and ovarian follicles

LH(Luteinizing hormone)- targets the gonads, stimulates the production of sex hormones, surge stimulates ovulation in females

PRL(prolactin)- targets the mammary glands, stimulates production of milk

Pituitary gland hormones(posterior)

Oxytocin(produced in hypothalamus, stored and released by posterior pituitary)- targets the uterus, stimulates contractions, targets the mammary glands, stimulates milk secretion

ADH(antidiuretic hormone vasopressin)- targets the kidneys and blood vessels, increases water retention

Pineal Gland

situated between the two hemispheres of the brain where the two halves of the thalamus join

Hormone Melatonin- targets the brain and regulates daily rhythm(wake and sleep)

Thyroid Gland

a butterfly-shaped glands that lies on either side of the larynx, just below the thyroid cartilage.

T3(triiodothyronine)- targets most cells, stimulates cellular metabolism

T4(thyroxine)- targets most cells, stimulates cellular metabolism

Calcitonin- targets bone and kidneys, lowers blood calcium

Parathyroid gland

four small glands that are embedded in the posterior aspect of the thyroid

PTH(Parathyroid hormone)- targets bone and kidneys, raises blood calcium

Thymus Gland

located between the sternum and the heart, embedded in the mediastinum.

Thymosin- targets lymphatic tissues, stimulates the production of T-cells

Panceras

the head of the pancreas is situated in the curve of the duodenum and the tail points toward the left side of the body.

Insulin- targets the liver, muscle, and adipose tissues, decreases blood glucose

Glucagon- targets the liver, increases blood glucose

GHIH(growth hormone IH)- inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon

Adrenal Medulla

located on top of the kidneys.

Epinephrine and norepinephrine- target heart, blood vessels, liver and lungs, increase heart rate, increase blood sugar

Adrenal cortex

outer section of each adrenal gland; secretes cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones.

Mineralocorticoids- target the kidneys, increases the intention of NA and excretion of K

Glucocorticoids- target most tissues, released in response to long-term stressors, increase blood glucose

Androgens- target most tissues, stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics