Chapter 22 - Enlightenment and Revolution

22.1 - The Scientific Revolution

Most scholars thought the earth was an immovable entity at the center of the universe during the Middle Ages. * The moon, sun, and planets all travelled in perfect circular arcs around the earth, according to this belief. * This viewpoint appeared to be supported by logic. * After all, as the sun rose in the morning and set in the evening, it appeared to be moving around the planet.
Beginning in the mid-fifteenth century, a few intellectuals published works that questioned the ancient thinkers' and church's teachings. * As these researchers replaced old assumptions with new theories, they ushered in what historians refer to as the Scientific Revolution in European thought.
Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, built on the new astronomical theories. Galileo learnt as a young man that a Dutch lens maker had created a device that could magnify far-off things. * In 1609, Galileo constructed his own telescope and used it to examine the cosmos.
Both Catholic and Protestant officials were alarmed by Galileo's findings since they contradicted church teaching and authority. * People might doubt other religious doctrines if they believe the church is mistaken on this.
The works of an ancient Greek physician named Galen were accepted as reality by European doctors during the Middle Ages. * Galen, on the other hand, had never dissected a human body. Instead, he had studied pig and other animal anatomy.

22.2: The Enlightenment in Europe

John Locke, a philosopher, had a more optimistic view of human nature. He felt that people may improve themselves by learning from their mistakes. * They possessed the innate aptitude to regulate their own affairs and look after the welfare of society as sensible people. * Locke was an outspoken opponent of absolute monarchy and a proponent of self-government.
François Marie Arouet was probably the most intellectual and influential of the philosophes. * He published almost 70 books of political writings, philosophy, and theatre under the pen name Voltaire.
Voltaire frequently employed satire to defame his opponents.
The growth of a more secular, or non-religious, perspective was a second result. * People began to publicly challenge their religious beliefs and the church's teachings during the Enlightenment. * People used to believe that the secrets of the cosmos were the work of God before the Scientific Revolution.
A third result of faith in science and development was the emergence of individualism. * People began to look to themselves for guidance as they moved away from the church and aristocracy.

22.3: The Enlightenment in Europe

Enlightenment principles influenced music styles as well. Composers like Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England dominated the European music scene. * These composers composed choral and organ music that was dramatic. Classical music evolved during the Enlightenment as a new, lighter, and more graceful style of music.
Frederick II, Prussia's ruler from 1740 until 1786, dedicated himself to improving the country.
Many religious freedoms were provided, censorship was reduced, and education was enhanced. * He also overhauled the justice system and outlawed torture. Frederick's changes, on the other hand, were only temporary. * He recognized that serfdom was unjust, but he did nothing to abolish it since he required the support of wealthy landowners. * As a result, he never attempted to alter the social order.
Joseph II of Austria was the most radical royal reformer. Joseph II, Maria Theresa's son and successor, ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790. * He instituted legislative changes and press freedom. He also advocated religious liberty for all people, including Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews.
In the early 1700s, Russia's ruler, Peter the Great, had campaigned for years to get a port on the Baltic Sea. * Catherine, too, desired access to the Black Sea. Her soldiers eventually took control of the Black Sea's northern shore after two wars with the Ottoman Turks.
Russia also obtained access to the Ottoman-controlled straits that connect the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

22.4 - The American Revolution

Hostilities between the two sides worsened during the next decade. Some colonial authorities advocated for independence from the United Kingdom. * A group of colonists threw a huge shipment of British tea into Boston Harbor in 1773 to protest a tea import tax.
To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas.
They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused. * As a result, the colonists had every right to revolt against a dictator who had violated the social contract.
To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas. They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused. * As a result, the colonists had every right to revolt against a dictator who had violated the social contract.
The British were not about to relinquish control of their colonies without a battle. The two sides went to war shortly after the Declaration of Independence was published. * At first appearance, the colonists were doomed to succumb quickly. * Washington's ragged army was pitted against the well-trained warriors of the world's most powerful government.
The 13 states formed a loose confederation in which they held the majority of the power in order to protect their authority. * As a result, the Articles of Confederation constructed a weak national government on purpose. * The executive and judicial branches did not exist. The Articles of Confederation, on the other hand, established only one branch of government: the Congress.