Most scholars thought the earth was an immovable entity at the center of the universe during the Middle Ages.
Beginning in the mid-fifteenth century, a few intellectuals published works that questioned the ancient thinkers' and church's teachings.
Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, built on the new astronomical theories. Galileo learnt as a young man that a Dutch lens maker had created a device that could magnify far-off things.
Both Catholic and Protestant officials were alarmed by Galileo's findings since they contradicted church teaching and authority.
The works of an ancient Greek physician named Galen were accepted as reality by European doctors during the Middle Ages.
John Locke, a philosopher, had a more optimistic view of human nature. He felt that people may improve themselves by learning from their mistakes.
François Marie Arouet was probably the most intellectual and influential of the philosophes.
Voltaire frequently employed satire to defame his opponents.
The growth of a more secular, or non-religious, perspective was a second result.
A third result of faith in science and development was the emergence of individualism.
Enlightenment principles influenced music styles as well. Composers like Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England dominated the European music scene.
Frederick II, Prussia's ruler from 1740 until 1786, dedicated himself to improving the country.
Many religious freedoms were provided, censorship was reduced, and education was enhanced.
Joseph II of Austria was the most radical royal reformer. Joseph II, Maria Theresa's son and successor, ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790.
In the early 1700s, Russia's ruler, Peter the Great, had campaigned for years to get a port on the Baltic Sea.
Russia also obtained access to the Ottoman-controlled straits that connect the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.
Hostilities between the two sides worsened during the next decade. Some colonial authorities advocated for independence from the United Kingdom.
To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas.
They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused.
To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas. They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused.
The British were not about to relinquish control of their colonies without a battle. The two sides went to war shortly after the Declaration of Independence was published.
The 13 states formed a loose confederation in which they held the majority of the power in order to protect their authority.
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