Chapter 22 - Enlightenment and Revolution

22.1 - The Scientific Revolution

  • Most scholars thought the earth was an immovable entity at the center of the universe during the Middle Ages. 

    • The moon, sun, and planets all travelled in perfect circular arcs around the earth, according to this belief. 
    • This viewpoint appeared to be supported by logic. 
    • After all, as the sun rose in the morning and set in the evening, it appeared to be moving around the planet.
  • Beginning in the mid-fifteenth century, a few intellectuals published works that questioned the ancient thinkers' and church's teachings. 

    • As these researchers replaced old assumptions with new theories, they ushered in what historians refer to as the Scientific Revolution in European thought.
  • Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, built on the new astronomical theories. Galileo learnt as a young man that a Dutch lens maker had created a device that could magnify far-off things. 

    • In 1609, Galileo constructed his own telescope and used it to examine the cosmos.
  • Both Catholic and Protestant officials were alarmed by Galileo's findings since they contradicted church teaching and authority. 

    • People might doubt other religious doctrines if they believe the church is mistaken on this.
  • The works of an ancient Greek physician named Galen were accepted as reality by European doctors during the Middle Ages. 

    • Galen, on the other hand, had never dissected a human body. Instead, he had studied pig and other animal anatomy.

22.2: The Enlightenment in Europe

  • John Locke, a philosopher, had a more optimistic view of human nature. He felt that people may improve themselves by learning from their mistakes. 

    • They possessed the innate aptitude to regulate their own affairs and look after the welfare of society as sensible people.
    • Locke was an outspoken opponent of absolute monarchy and a proponent of self-government.
  • François Marie Arouet was probably the most intellectual and influential of the philosophes. 

    • He published almost 70 books of political writings, philosophy, and theatre under the pen name Voltaire.
  • Voltaire frequently employed satire to defame his opponents.

  • The growth of a more secular, or non-religious, perspective was a second result. 

    • People began to publicly challenge their religious beliefs and the church's teachings during the Enlightenment. 
    • People used to believe that the secrets of the cosmos were the work of God before the Scientific Revolution.
  • A third result of faith in science and development was the emergence of individualism. 

    • People began to look to themselves for guidance as they moved away from the church and aristocracy.

22.3: The Enlightenment in Europe

  • Enlightenment principles influenced music styles as well. Composers like Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England dominated the European music scene. 

    • These composers composed choral and organ music that was dramatic. Classical music evolved during the Enlightenment as a new, lighter, and more graceful style of music.
  • Frederick II, Prussia's ruler from 1740 until 1786, dedicated himself to improving the country. 

  • Many religious freedoms were provided, censorship was reduced, and education was enhanced. 

    • He also overhauled the justice system and outlawed torture. Frederick's changes, on the other hand, were only temporary. 
    • He recognized that serfdom was unjust, but he did nothing to abolish it since he required the support of wealthy landowners. 
    • As a result, he never attempted to alter the social order.
  • Joseph II of Austria was the most radical royal reformer. Joseph II, Maria Theresa's son and successor, ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790. 

    • He instituted legislative changes and press freedom. He also advocated religious liberty for all people, including Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews.
  • In the early 1700s, Russia's ruler, Peter the Great, had campaigned for years to get a port on the Baltic Sea. 

    • Catherine, too, desired access to the Black Sea. Her soldiers eventually took control of the Black Sea's northern shore after two wars with the Ottoman Turks.
  • Russia also obtained access to the Ottoman-controlled straits that connect the Black Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

22.4 - The American Revolution

  • Hostilities between the two sides worsened during the next decade. Some colonial authorities advocated for independence from the United Kingdom. 

    • A group of colonists threw a huge shipment of British tea into Boston Harbor in 1773 to protest a tea import tax.
  • To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas. 

  • They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused. 

    • As a result, the colonists had every right to revolt against a dictator who had violated the social contract.
  • To justify their independence, colonial leaders exploited Enlightenment ideas. They said that the colonists had begged for the same political rights as British citizens, but that the king had steadfastly refused. 

    • As a result, the colonists had every right to revolt against a dictator who had violated the social contract.
  • The British were not about to relinquish control of their colonies without a battle. The two sides went to war shortly after the Declaration of Independence was published. 

    • At first appearance, the colonists were doomed to succumb quickly. 
    • Washington's ragged army was pitted against the well-trained warriors of the world's most powerful government.
  • The 13 states formed a loose confederation in which they held the majority of the power in order to protect their authority. 

    • As a result, the Articles of Confederation constructed a weak national government on purpose. 
    • The executive and judicial branches did not exist. The Articles of Confederation, on the other hand, established only one branch of government: the Congress.

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