Scientific n Enlightenment

unit 5 part 1

Scientific revolution

The Scientific Revolution was a gradual shift in the 16th–18th centuries in which new methods of observation, experimentation, and reasoning replaced traditional beliefs about nature. Building on earlier Renaissance ideas and incremental discoveries, thinkers like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton transformed understanding of the universe.

Its impact was far-reaching: it established the scientific method, advanced major fields like physics and astronomy, challenged old religious and philosophical views, inspired the Enlightenment, and laid the foundation for modern science, technology, and industrial progress. Emphasis on reason and systematic observation of nature

• Formulation of the scientific method

• Expansion of scientific knowledge

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Polish astronomer

• Developed the Heliocentric Theory - Sun is at the center of the universe

• Did not want to publish his ideas because he knew that most scholars & clergy would reject his theory because it went against their religious views

Johannes Kepler

• German astronomer & mathematician

• Mathematically proved the heliocentric theory

• Proved that planets revolved around the sun in elliptical orbits rather than circles & demonstrated that planets move faster when they are closest to the sun

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Italian astronomer & physicist

• 1st to use telescope to study the stars

• Discovered 4 moons of Jupiter

• Discoveries frightened the church - worried people would start to question other Church teachings

• Forced to recant in front of the Inquisition & lived under house arrest

Francis Bacon

• English statesman & writer

• Believed that a better understanding of the natural world will produce practical knowledge that could improve people’s lives

• Scientists relied too much on ancient theories; they should experiment

• Helped develop the scientific method

  • Observe, Hypothesis, Experiment, Analyze Data

Rene Descartes

• French philosopher & mathematician

• Believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions

• Knowledge should be gained by using mathematics & logic

“I think, therefore, I am.”

Isaac Newton

• English philosopher & mathematician

• Developed the Law of Universal Gravitation

  • All physical objects are affected equally by the same forces, in space & on earth

• Every object in the universe attracts every other object (gravity)

• Developed calculus

Andreas Vesalius

• Flemish anatomist & surgeon

• Considered the father of modern anatomy

• Dissecting human bodies was illegal; was able to use dead bodies of criminals stolen from the gallows

William Harvey

• English physician

• Concluded that blood circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart & returning through the veins

• Valves maintained a one-way flow

Gabriel Fahrenheit

• German physicist & engineer

• Developed precise thermometers filled with mercury to measure temperature

• The scale associated with this thermometer is called the Fahrenheit scale

  • 32°F was the temperature for freezing water

  • 212°F was the boiling point

Robert Boyle

• British physicist & chemist

• Founder of modern chemistry

• Defined an element as a substance that cannot be reduced to other simple substances

enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement that emphasized reason, individual rights, and the power of human thought to improve society. It developed gradually as philosophers—such as Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu—challenged traditional authority, questioned absolute monarchy, and promoted ideas like liberty, equality, religious tolerance, and separation of powers.

Its impact was profound: it inspired political revolutions (especially in America and France), advanced modern democratic and constitutional principles, encouraged scientific and secular thinking, expanded education, and helped shape modern concepts of human rights and government.

Thomas Hobbes

• English writer of Leviathan

• Believed people are naturally wicked

• A strong government is needed to keep order (absolute monarchy)

• “Without government our lives would be nasty, brutish, and short.”

John Locke

• English writer of Two Treatises on Government

• Believed people are the source of power

• Government must protect our natural rights (representative democracy)

• “All people have the natural rights, including life, liberty, and property.”

Jean Jacques Rousseau

• French writer of The Social Contract

• Government is an agreement or contract between ruler & people (direct democracy)

• People give up some rights in return for protection

• “No man has any natural authority over his fellow men.”

Montesquieu

• French writer of On the Spirit of Laws

• Wrote about the importance of a separation of powers

• This provides “checks & balances”

• “To become truly great, one has to stand with people, not above them.”

Voltaire

• French writer 

• Freedom of speech

• Religious toleration

• Separation of church & state

• “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

Cesare Beccaria

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) was an Italian Enlightenment philosopher best known for his influential work on criminal justice and legal reform. His most famous book, On Crimes and Punishments (1764), criticized torture, secret trials, and harsh punishments, arguing instead for a fair, rational, and humane justice system.

American Revolution (1775–1783)

• Colonists revolted against British rule.

• Key ideas: natural rights, representative government, popular sovereignty.

• Result: The United States became an independent republic.

French Revolution (1789–1799)

• Triggered by social inequality, financial crisis, and Enlightenment ideas.

• Overthrew the monarchy and attempted to create a republic.

• Radical phase included the Reign of Terror.

• Inspired movements across Europe and the world.

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)

• The only successful slave revolt in history.

• Enslaved Africans of Saint-Domingue overthrew French colonial rule.

• Result: Haiti became the first Black republic and abolished slavery.

Latin American Wars of Independence (c. 1808–1830)

• Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas fought for independence.

• Key leaders: Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, Miguel Hidalgo.

• Created modern nations like Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Chile, Peru, and Brazil (peaceful transition in Brazil).

magna carta

A charter agreed to in 1215 between King John of England and a group of rebellious barons.
Its purpose was to limit the king’s power and protect certain rights.