AP WORLD FINAL REVIEW!!!

Sahara Desert

Largest hot desert in the world (North Africa). Served as both barrier and caravan route.

Sahel

Semi‐arid "transition zone" south of the Sahara. Pastoralism + rain‐fed farming.

Sub‐Saharan Africa

Region south of the Sahara (savanna, rainforest, highlands). Home to Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Bantu migrations.

Trans‐Saharan Trade

Overland network linking North Africa & West Africa; used camels and celestial navigation. Exchanged gold (south) ↔ salt (north).

West African Kingdoms

Ghana (c. 300s-1240): Taxed caravans, grew wealthy from gold-salt trade; capital at Kumbi Saleh.

Mali

Founded by Sundiata Keita; famed for Mansa Musa's 1324 hajj; Timbuktu & Djenne as centers of Islamic learning.

Songhai

Under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad, it controlled major trade routes; broke away from Mali; ended by Moroccan invasion.

Desert vs. Savanna vs. Rainforest

Sahara: Early barrier; when camel caravans emerged (c. 4th-5th c.), states along oases (e.g., Ghana) controlled trade.

Natural Resources

Goldfields (Bambuk, Bure) and salt mines (Taghaza, Taoudenni) determined which kingdoms thrived.

Ecological Diversity → Cultural Diversity

Different climates fostered varied subsistence (pastoralism, millet/sorghum farming, yam cultivation), leading to numerous languages and ethnic groups.

Economic Prosperity & State Power

Ghana taxed caravans traveling through its territory; used revenue to build armies and bureaucracy.

Mansa Musa's pilgrimage

Showcased immense wealth—funding mosques, madrasas, and libraries.

Urban Growth & Islamic Scholarship

Cities like Timbuktu, Gao, and Djenne flourished as trade hubs and centers of Islamic learning.

Cultural Exchange

Muslim merchants brought Islam (Arabic literacy, Islamic law) as they exchanged gold, salt, ivory, and kola nuts for North African textiles, horses, and books.

Elite Conversion & Legitimacy

Rulers (e.g., Mali's Mansa Musa; Songhai's Askia Muhammad) adopted Islam to legitimize alliances with Muslim merchants and North African states.

Education & Legal Systems

Mosque‐schools (kuttabs) and madrasas emerged; Timbuktu's Sankore University attracted scholars from North Africa.

Sharia courts

Handled marriage, inheritance, and commerce—often alongside customary law.

Architecture & Material Culture

Mudbrick mosques (Great Mosque of Djenné, Great Mosque of Gao) became symbols of Islamic influence.

Arabic script

Used for record‐keeping; manuscripts (theology, astronomy) flourished.

Syncretism & Continuities

Rural communities blended ancestor veneration and spirit rites with Islamic practices; griots (oral historians) continued to preserve local epics.

Geography & Monsoon Winds

Coastal cities (Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, Mogadishu) sat on coral islands/peninsulas ideal for dhows.

Cultural Melting Pot

Intermarriage between Bantu speakers and Arab/Persian/Indian merchants produced a distinct Swahili identity (language, architecture).

Economic Role

Exported gold (from Zimbabwe/Mutapa), ivory, tortoiseshell, and slaves. Imported textiles (Gujarat cotton, Chinese silks), porcelain, and spices.

Urban Autonomy

Each city‐state (e.g., Kilwa) was politically independent, ruled by sultans or merchant councils, taxed trade, and minted coins (Kilwa gold dinars).

Kinship & Lineage

Lineage‐based authority remained crucial; rulers still legitimized through dynastic descent.

Oral Traditions

Griots continued to narrate epics (e.g., Sundiata) even as literacy in Arabic grew.

Animism & Ancestor Veneration

Many villagers retained indigenous spiritual practices alongside Islamic rites.

Subsistence Patterns

Farming (millet, sorghum, yams) and herding (cattle, goats) remained the economic backbone outside major cities.

Political/Administrative Changes

Introduction of written bureaucracy (tax registers, treaties) in Arabic; appointment of qadis for Islamic judicial cases.

Urban Growth

Expansion of cities (Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne); construction of mosques, madrasas, and libraries.

Education

Proliferation of Quranic schools and Sankore‐style madrasas that taught theology, law, and sciences.

Material Culture

Introduction of Islamic architectural styles (minarets, pointed arches) and artisanal techniques (Arabic calligraphy, metalworking influenced by North African craftsmen).

Tributary State

A weaker polity paying tribute to a stronger empire (e.g., Vietnam, Korea to China) to affirm subordination and receive trade privileges.

Neo‐Confucianism

A revival of Confucian thought blended with Buddhist and Daoist ideas—emphasizing moral self‐cultivation, social harmony, and state‐sponsored education (Song China).

Civil Service Exams

Rigorous testing (based on Confucian classics, poetry, essay writing) designed to recruit scholar‐officials (mandarins) into government positions (Tang & Song China).

Feudalism (Japan vs. Europe)

Japan (Heian → Kamakura → Muromachi periods): Power devolved to regional lords (daimyō), each maintaining private armies of samurai under the authority of a shogun (military dictator). Europe (High Middle Ages): Land granted by monarchs or powerful nobles to vassals/knights in exchange for military service; the pope and Church held significant influence.

Shogun

De facto ruler (e.g., Minamoto Yoritomo, Tokugawa Ieyasu) with military and political authority; emperor became ceremonial figure.

Daimyō

Regional warlords controlling provinces; received land and pledged loyalty to the shogun.

Samurai

Warrior class serving daimyō, bound by Bushidō—a code stressing loyalty, honor, and readiness to die for one's lord.

Empress Wu (Tang China)

The only woman to rule China in her own right (690-705 CE); promoted Buddhism to legitimize her reign and built monasteries/temples.

Champa Rice

Fast‐ripening, drought‐resistant strain introduced to southern Song China (11th c.), supporting population growth and urbanization.

Golden Horde & Khanate

Khanate: A political entity ruled by a khan (e.g., Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, Yuan Dynasty). Golden Horde: Northwestern Mongol khanate (mid‐13th c.-1502) controlling Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan; exacted tribute from Russian principalities.

Silk Road

Overland network connecting China to Central Asia, Persia, and Europe, transferring luxury goods (silk, spices, porcelains), technologies (gunpowder, printing), and ideas (Buddhism, mathematics, astronomy).

Indian Ocean Trade

Maritime route linking East Africa, Arabian Peninsula, India, Southeast Asia, and China, where monsoon wind patterns enabled predictable navigation.

Cultural Diffusion

Both routes facilitated cultural diffusion (e.g., Buddhism entering China, Islam spreading to Southeast Asia), technological exchange (compass, paper money), and intensified economic interdependence.

Civil Service Examination Significance

Based on Confucian classics; became a path for social mobility. Families invested in education to ensure sons passed the exams, earning scholar‐official status (jinshi degree).

Bureaucracy

A system administered by bureaucrats who collected taxes, oversaw public works, and implemented legal codes.

Centralized authority

Consolidation of power under the emperor, diminishing the influence of hereditary aristocracy.

Confucian ideals

Ethical guidelines followed by judges, magistrates, and tax collectors in the bureaucracy.

Empress Wu

Ruler from 690-705 who favored Buddhism to legitimize her reign and constructed monasteries.

Chan (Zen) Buddhism

A form of Buddhism practiced by many Tang elites during the Tang Dynasty.

Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution

A campaign launched by Emperor Wuzong from 842-845 against Buddhism, citing it as a foreign religion undermining Confucian order.

Neo-Confucianism

A synthesis of Confucian ethics with select Buddhist and Daoist metaphysics, emphasizing li and qi.

Impact of Neo-Confucianism on Song China

Reinvigorated Confucian values and provided an educational framework for civil service exams.

Scientific revolution in the Song Dynasty

Characterized by technological and economic innovations, including gunpowder, movable-type printing, and agricultural advances.

Gunpowder

Used for military applications such as fire lances, bombs, and early firearms.

Movable-type printing

Invented by Bi Sheng in the 1040s, it boosted literacy in Song China.

Jiaozi

Paper currency issued by the government in the Song Dynasty to facilitate commerce.

Geography's influence on Japan

Japan's island archipelago and rugged terrain limited invasions and shaped its political and economic development.

Ritsuryō system

A centralized political system modeled on Tang legal codes that collapsed by the 9th century.

Feudal System in Japan

A hierarchical structure where real power shifted from the emperor to regents and military leaders.

Samurai warlords (daimyō)

Feudal lords in Japan who controlled land, collected taxes, and maintained private armies.

Mongol invasions of Japan

Failed attempts in 1274 and 1281 that were thwarted by Japan's geographical isolation.

Hierarchy of loyalty

A system established in both Japanese and Western European feudal systems, outlining relationships from monarchs to peasants.

Land granted in exchange for military service

Honor‐based codes (European chivalry vs. Japanese bushidō).

Religion's Role in Europe

Roman Catholic Church was powerful, property‐owning, and influenced kings.

Religion's Role in Japan

Shinto and Buddhism coexisted; samurai followed bushidō (influenced by Zen Buddhism) rather than serving a religious institution.

Central Authority in Europe

European kings gradually consolidated power over feudal lords.

Central Authority in Japan

Japanese shogunate (from Kamakura onward) held military supremacy, while the emperor remained a figurehead.

Social Mobility & Bureaucracy in China

Confucian exams influenced Korea but not Japan.

Samurai Status

Samurai status was hereditary.

European Knights

European knights could sometimes be ennobled by merit.

Pastoralists

Nomadic herders of sheep, goats, yaks, or horses—well adapted to Central Asian steppes.

Golden Horde

Northwestern Mongol khanate (mid‐13th c.-1502) ruling over Rus' principalities, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and parts of the Caucasus; extracted tribute from Russian princes.

Khanate

Political division of the Mongol Empire ruled by a khan (e.g., Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, Yuan Dynasty in China).

Genghis Khan

United Mongol tribes (1206), created a meritocratic military, used cavalry tactics, psychological warfare, and speed to conquer vast Eurasian territories.

Merit & Mobility in Genghis Khan's Empire

Promoted officers by ability, not noble birth. Built a highly disciplined, mobile cavalry (5,000‐man "tumens").

Tactics & Organization

Utilized composite bows on horseback (range, power).

Military Tactics

Feigned retreats, encirclements, and coordinated multi‐direction assaults.

Psychological Warfare

Employed spies/intelligence gathering and psychological warfare (massacres to instill fear).

Integration of Conquered Peoples

Recruited specialized artisans, engineers, and bureaucrats (e.g., Chinese siege engineers) to serve the khanate; religious tolerance ensured support from diverse populations.

Pax Mongolica

Definition: "Mongol Peace" (c. 13th-14th c.) marked by unprecedented political stability across the Silk Road from East Asia to the Black Sea.

Trade Impact of Pax Mongolica

Safe passage for merchants, diplomats, and pilgrims—caravans faced fewer bandit attacks.

Standardized Relay Stations

Standardized relay stations (yam system) and postal routes expedited communication.

Increased Volume of Goods

Increased volume of goods (silk, spices, precious metals), technologies (gunpowder, printing), and ideas (Buddhism, Islam, plague microbe).

Cultural Exchanges

European travelers (e.g., Marco Polo) documented Asian courts; traveler Otto of Hesse brought Islamic astronomers to Europe.

Impact of Mongols on China

Kublai Khan established Yuan; reorganized Chinese administration (divided populace into four classes: Mongols → "semu" [Central Asians] → Han Chinese → Southerners).

Impact of Mongols on Russia

Russian principalities paid tribute to the khan but retained local rulers; Mongol "yoke" isolated Russia from Western Europe, slowing cultural/technological exchange.

Impact of Mongols on Persia

Hülegü Khan captured Baghdad (1258), ending the Abbasid Caliphate.

Impact of Mongols on Europe

Increased trade along the Silk Road brought European merchants (Venetians, Genoese) to Mongol courts.

Transmission of the Black Death

Transmission of the Black Death (c. 1347-1351) along Mongol routes devastated Europe's population (25-40 million deaths) and reshaped labor relations and feudal structures.

European Alliances with Mongols

So-called "Wonder Years": European rulers (e.g., Pope Innocent IV) sought alliances with Mongols against Muslim states (ultimately unsuccessful).

Mayans

City‐states (Tikal, Palenque) in Yucatán Peninsula/Guatemala; built step pyramids, developed hieroglyphic writing, advanced calendars, and astronomy; practiced slash‐and‐burn agriculture.

Aztecs

Valley of Mexico; capital at Tenochtitlan (island city). Chinampa agriculture (floating gardens), polytheistic religion requiring human sacrifice (sun god). Triple Alliance (Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan) dominated central Mexico.

Incas

Andean highlands; capital at Cusco; built a road network (25,000 miles), terrace farming, quipu (knotted‐cord record‐keeping); administered by mit'a labor drafts; worshipped Inti (sun god) and venerated ancestors (mummy cult).

Mayans' Religious Beliefs

Polytheistic; gods for maize, sun, rain. Elaborate rituals: bloodletting by elites, ball court ceremonies. Astronomy tied to calendars (260-day ritual, 365-day solar).

Aztecs' Religious Beliefs

Pantheon including Huitzilopochtli (sun/war), Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent). Human sacrifice to sustain cosmic order—thousands per year. Priestly class controlled temple complexes (e.g., Templo Mayor).

Incas' Religious Beliefs

Sun (Inti) as supreme deity; Sapa Inca considered 'son of the sun.' Viracocha (creator god). State‐sponsored ceremonies (Inti Raymi festival). Mummified ancestors consulted in governance.

Disease Impact on Societies

Smallpox (Aztecs), influenza (Incas) decimated populations (~50-90 percent) before or during initial conquests.

Military Technology

Spanish steel weapons, firearms, and cavalry outranked indigenous arms.