Bio Exam

Biodiversity

The variety of different types of habitats, communities, species, and genetic variations within an ecosystem.

Ecosystem biodiversity

Refers to the different types of habitats, communities, and ecological processes present in an ecosystem, such as tropical deserts, alpines, tundra, and oceans.

Microhabitats

Small-scale habitats within an ecosystem that sustain different living things due to variations in environmental conditions.

Species biodiversity

The number of species present in an ecosystem, including both known and estimated new species. It is estimated that there are around 100 million species on Earth.

Genetic biodiversity

The variation in genetic characteristics within a single species, such as humans.

Reasons to preserve biodiversity

Aesthetic value, medicinal value, food production, and ecological interactions.

Ways to protect biodiversity

Patrolling reserves, planting species, and exploring new areas.

Interconnectedness

The concept that all living things interact with each other, and the decline of one species can have effects on other species.

Evolutionary change

The study of how organisms have come to exist and change over time.

Ecosystem stability

The ability of an ecosystem to adapt to change, which is enhanced by higher levels of biodiversity.

Habitat loss

The destruction or degradation of natural habitats, leading to a loss of biodiversity.

Invasive species

Non-native species that are introduced to an ecosystem and have a negative impact on native species and biodiversity.

Overexploitation

The excessive hunting, fishing, or harvesting of species, leading to a decline in their populations and biodiversity.

Pollution

The contamination of water, air, or soil with harmful substances, which can negatively impact biodiversity.

Climate change

The long-term alteration of temperature and weather patterns on Earth, which can have significant effects on biodiversity.

Extinction

The natural process of species being replaced over time. Mass extinction refers to a significant increase in the rate of extinction, with an estimated 27,000 species going extinct each year.

Habitat restoration

The process of repairing and restoring damaged or degraded habitats to support biodiversity.

Zoos and Captive Breeding

The breeding of endangered species in captivity with the goal of reintroducing them into their natural habitats.

Phylogeny

A visual representation of the evolutionary history of a species, showing how species are related over time.

Taxonomy

The science of naming, classifying, and identifying species. It involves categorizing species into different levels of classification, such as domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Binomial Nomenclature

The system of naming organisms using two parts - the genus (capitalized) and the species (lower case).

Morphology

The study of the form, shape, and structure of organisms. It can be used to determine if two individuals belong to the same species.

Biology

The ability of two individuals to naturally produce viable offspring, which is a preferred method for determining if they belong to the same species.

Phylogenetic Tree

A branching diagram that represents the evolutionary relationships between different species.

Clade

A group of organisms that share a common ancestor and have similar characteristics.

Dichotomous Keys

Tools used to identify different species based on their observable characteristics. They consist of a series of choices with two options each.

Eukarya

One of the three domains of life, consisting of organisms with complex cells that have a nucleus.

Eubacteria

One of the six kingdoms of life, consisting of prokaryotic organisms that can be either heterotrophs or autotrophs.

Archaea

One of the three domains of life, consisting of prokaryotic organisms that live in extreme environments and have a cell wall not made of peptidoglycan.

Protists

One of the six kingdoms of life, consisting of mostly single-celled organisms that can be autotrophic, heterotrophic, or both.

Fungi

One of the six kingdoms of life, consisting of multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic and have a cell wall made of chitin.

Plantae

One of the six kingdoms of life, consisting of multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are autotrophic and have a cell wall.

Animals

One of the six kingdoms of life, consisting of multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic and reproduce sexually.

Viruses

Non-living infectious agents that consist of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat. They can only reproduce within a host cell and are responsible for causing various diseases.

Lytic Cycle

The cycle of viral reproduction in which the virus attaches to a host cell, injects its DNA (new instruction manual), host breaks up its own DNA, new virus cells form and lysis (virus breaks out of cells)

Immune cells (WBC's)

White blood cells that arm and replicate, launching antibodies when detecting a virus.

Memory cells

Immune cells that are specific for the attack of a full-scale virus attack and are left behind after the initial immune response.

Vaccine

A substance that contains a dead or non-functioning version of a virus or parts of the virus, which helps prepare memory cells in case of actual virus contact.

COVID Vaccine

A vaccine that inserts RNA to prevent the infection from getting worse by providing information on how to create the spike protein of the virus.

Herd Immunity

The goal of having enough vaccinated individuals in a population to protect those who cannot get vaccinated, reducing the spread of disease and stopping it.

People who cannot get vaccinated

Individuals who are too old, too young, or immunocompromised and are unable to receive vaccines.

Evolution

The gradual change in traits of a population over time, depending on who survives to maturity and who gets to reproduce.

Variation

Genetic differences amongst individuals in a population, which may be structural, physiological, or behavioral.

Adaptation

A genetic difference that helps an organism survive and/or reproduce in a particular environment.

Natural Selection

The process where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce, leading to the selection of favorable variations.

Artificial Selection

Selective pressure exerted by humans to "improve" desirable traits in organisms.

Antibiotic Resistance

The ability of bacteria to develop mutations that make them resistant to antibiotics, leading to the survival and multiplication of resistant bacteria.

Genetic Engineering

The manipulation of offspring by humans, altering the variation and inheritance of genes.

Mimicry

A type of adaptation where organisms resemble their environment or have specific traits to aid in survival.

Genetic Drift

The process of change in the variation of a population due to chance or random events.

Sexual Selection

The process whereby organisms with certain sex characteristics tend to reproduce more, leading to the selection of specific traits.

Mutation

The changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a new genetic variation.

Gene Flow/Movement

The transfer or movement of genes/variation from one population to another.

Natural Selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive, leading to the selection of favorable variations.

Speciation

The process by which groups evolve to become distinct species, often involving reproductive isolation and genetic mutations.

Altruism

Self-sacrifice for someone else.

Kin Selection

Self-sacrifice depends on close family relationship because saving your DNA is saving my DNA.

Reciprocal Altruism

Unrelated organisms frequently cooperate, and cooperation depends on returning the favor.

Game Theory - Prisoner's Dilemma

A mathematical model that explores the outcomes of cooperation and defection in a social dilemma.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid, the genetic material that contains the instructions for making proteins.

Genes

Portions of DNA that code for specific traits.

Chromosome

Bundled DNA that carries genes.

Nucleotide

The building blocks of DNA, consisting of a phosphate, sugar, and nitrogen base.

Complementary Rule

DNA has specific pairing between nitrogenous bases (A-T, C-G).

DNA Replication

The process of copying DNA to produce two identical strands.

Mitosis

The cell division process that results in two identical daughter cells.

Interphase

The phase before mitosis where the cell carries out normal activities and DNA replication occurs.

Prophase

The first phase of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nucleus disintegrates.

Metaphase

The second phase of mitosis where chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase

The third phase of mitosis where sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase

The fourth phase of mitosis where the two daughter cells start to split up and chromosomes uncoil.

Cytokinesis

The process of splitting the cell into two separate cells.

Meiosis

The cell division process that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes.

Diploid

The full amount of chromosomes in a body cell (2n).

Haploid

Half the normal amount of chromosomes in a gamete (n).

Spermatogenesis

The creation of male gametes (sperm) occuring in the testes. This resuls in 4 useful sperm (mostly just DNA and nucleus)

Oogenesis

The creation of female gametes (eggs) which occurs in the ovaries. This results in one primary ovum (which recieves large amounts of cytoplasm and DNA) and 3 polar bodies. This is because the egg has to divide to make the zygote.

Chromosome Abnormalities

Deletions, duplications, inversions, substitutions, and translocations that result in changes in genetic material.

Particulate Inheritance Theory

The theory that inheritance is determined by discrete particles (alleles) that do not mix infinitely.

Genotype

The combination of alleles that an individual has for a specific gene.

Phenotype

The observable characteristics (physical appearance) of an individual.

Pure breeds

Tall plants are bred with tall plants and small plants are bred with small plants to create pure breeds.

F1 generation

Offspring produced by crossing tall plants (TT) with short plants (tt), resulting in all tall plants (Tt).

F2 generation

Offspring produced by breeding the F1 generation, resulting in a 3:1 ratio of tall (TT, Tt) to short (tt) plants.

Law of Segregation

The idea that each tall plant from the F1 generation carries two alleles (two copies of the trait) and passes on only one allele to its offspring.

Dominant Traits Rule

Strong traits (dominant) cover weak traits (recessive), with dominant traits always being expressed (T) and recessive traits only being expressed when not covered by dominant traits (t).

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a trait (Aa).

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a trait (AA or aa).

Punnett Squares

A tool used to predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring based on the alleles of the parents.

Genotypic Ratio

The ratio of different genotypes in a population.

Phenotypic Ratio

The ratio of different phenotypes in a population.

Incomplete Dominance

When neither allele is completely dominant over the other, resulting in a heterozygous phenotype that is a blend of the two alleles.

Codominance

When both alleles are equally dominant and expressed, resulting in a phenotype that shows both traits.

Multiple Alleles

More than two alleles are possible for a given trait, allowing for greater variation in genotypes and phenotypes.

Blood Types

A system of multiple alleles that determine an individual's blood type, including A, B, AB, and O.

Rh Factor

An inherited antigen (protein) on the surface of red blood cells that determines whether an individual is Rh positive or Rh negative.

Polygenic Traits

Traits that are controlled by the expression of several genes, resulting in continuous variation.

Multifactorial Traits

Traits that are controlled by the expression of several genes as well as environmental factors, resulting in continuous variation.

Epistasis

When one gene depends on another gene for it to be expressed, controlling whether the results of the other gene are visible.

Linked Genes

Genes that are physically located close together on the same chromosome and are likely to be inherited together.