Period 1 Study Guide
A period in Chinese history known for its cultural, economic, and technological advancements. It is divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1127) and the Southern Song (1127-1279). Key features include:
Economic Growth: Expansion of trade and commerce.
Cultural Flourishing: Advances in art, literature, and philosophy.
Technological Innovations: Inventions like gunpowder and the compass.
Social Structure: Emergence of a scholar-official class.
The Song Dynasty is often regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization.
Key Points of the Song Dynasty
Confucian Expansion: Emphasis on Confucian ideals influenced governance and social structure.
During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Confucianism experienced a revival and expansion, particularly through the development of Neo-Confucianism. This philosophical movement integrated Confucian thought with Buddhist and Daoist elements, emphasizing moral self-cultivation, social harmony, and the importance of education. The state promoted Confucian ideals, leading to the establishment of civil service exams based on Confucian texts, which reinforced its influence in governance and society. This period marked a significant cultural and intellectual flourishing in China.
Tributary System: The "Middle Kingdom" concept reinforced China's centrality in East Asia, but reliance on tributary states created diplomatic challenges.
Population Boom/Urban Expansion: Rapid population growth led to urbanization, straining resources and infrastructure.
The population boom during Song China (960-1279 AD) can be attributed to several factors:
Agricultural Innovations: Introduction of new rice strains, such as Champa rice, which allowed for multiple harvests per year.
Improved Farming Techniques: Advancements in irrigation and farming tools increased productivity.
Economic Growth: Expansion of trade and commerce led to better living standards.
Urbanization: Growth of cities attracted people for jobs and opportunities.
These factors combined contributed to a significant increase in population during this period.
Military Weakness: Inadequate military strength and inability to defend against invasions contributed to the dynasty's decline.
The downfall of Song China (960-1279) can be attributed to several key factors:
Military Weakness: The Song dynasty struggled with military defense, particularly against northern tribes like the Jurchens, leading to territorial losses.
Economic Strain: Heavy taxation and reliance on trade made the economy vulnerable, especially during military conflicts.
Political Corruption: Bureaucratic inefficiencies and corruption weakened governance and public trust.
Cultural Focus: The emphasis on arts and culture over military prowess left the state ill-prepared for external threats.
Mongol Invasion: Ultimately, the Mongol conquests in the 13th century led to the fall of the Song dynasty and the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.
Definition: Southernization is the process by which ideas, technology, and culture from South and Southeast Asia spread to other parts of the world, shaping global development. Creates a prosperous south.
Order of expansion:
Starts during the 5th Century at India
By that time it goes to China
8th Century it goes to the Middle East/The lands of Muslim Caliphates
13th century its affecting the Christian Mediterranean
Diffused Via: Trade
Indian cotton textiles start Southernization
High demand causes Indian trade of these to significantly increase “India virtually clothed the world"
Search for new sources of Bullion forces Indian sailors to travel
Siberia was India’s main source of gold—>nomadic disturbances in Central Asia disrupt their trade—> Indian sailors travel to find an alternative source—> Ethiopian merchants that had lots of gold became India’s most important trade partners
Achievements
Learn how to crystalize sugar and popularize this product
Became leaders of astronomy, medicine, & math
Math: Lay foundation of modern math, “Arab” numerals came from India, and invest cero, extremely advanced in this area
Advanced artistically, musically, & philosophically
Invent chess & hair dye
First to start riding the monsoons
Extremely talented sailors that used nature to navigate
Establishes first contact between India & Southeast Asia
Desire/Demand for Silk
Arrived & Influenced Madagascar
Underlaid the revolutionary social, political, economic, and technological developments of the Tang & the Song
Effects:
Developed math
Established indigo & cotton
Made sugar an important crop
Introduced new varieties of rice-Champa from Vietnam
Drought-resistant & early ripening properties=begins systematic terracing with rice cultivation spreading up the hillsides, doubling area of rice cultivation, doubling the Chinese population
South area of China transforms into one of the most prosperous/commercialized parts of empire
Three technologies they developed(compass, printing, gunpowder) changes world
Arab cavalries were in process of conquering new plans, and when they established on the Indian frontier, they became influenced by elements of southernization.
Arab conquest:
Spreads important crops and popularize them
First to import large numbers of enslaved Africans to produce sugar= (widely popularize the crop)
Discover/diffuse new sources of bullion
Adopt & advance Indian math
Develop/improve the Chinese compass & become the first to use it for navigation
China
Confucian Influence: Women were expected to be obedient to fathers, husbands, and sons.
Foot binding: practice of bending a young girl’s foot into the size of a mini slipper to showcase high/elite status
Marriage: Arranged marriages were common; women managed households.
Education: Limited access, primarily for elite women.
Japan
Heian Period: Women of the court had more freedom; literature flourished (e.g., "The Tale of Genji").
Samurai Class: Women managed estates in the absence of men.
Korea
Confucianism: Similar to China, with strict roles emphasizing domestic duties.
Korean restrictions on elite women, especially widows, came to exceed even those in China itself.
Inheritance: Women could inherit property, but their roles were largely confined to the home.
Vietnam
Matriarchal Elements: Women held significant roles in agriculture and family.
Resistance: Notable figures like Trung Sisters led revolts against Chinese rule.
Southeast Asia (General)
Diverse Roles: Varied by region; some societies had matrilineal structures.
Trade and Economy: Women participated in local markets and trade.
This overview highlights the complexity and diversity of women's roles across different cultures and regions during this period.
Buddhism is a spiritual tradition founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th century BCE. Its core ideologies include:
Four Noble Truths: Understanding suffering, its cause, the possibility of cessation, and the path to liberation.
The Four Noble Truths are fundamental teachings in Buddhism:
Dukkha: Life is characterized by suffering and dissatisfaction.
Samudaya: The cause of suffering is craving and attachment.
Nirodha: Suffering can be overcome by eliminating craving.
Magga: The path to the cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path, which includes right understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
Monasticism in Buddhism refers to the practice of renouncing worldly life to pursue spiritual development. Monks and nuns live in monastic communities, following strict ethical codes and engaging in meditation, study, and communal activities. Key aspects include:
Vinaya: The monastic code of conduct.
Meditation: Central to spiritual practice.
Community (Sangha): Supportive environment for practice.
Teaching: Monastics often teach laypeople.
Monasticism plays a crucial role in preserving and transmitting Buddhist teachings.
In Buddhism, wealth is viewed with a nuanced perspective. It is not inherently good or bad; rather, it depends on how it is acquired and used. Key messages include:
Right Livelihood: Wealth should be earned ethically, avoiding harm to others.
Generosity: Sharing wealth is encouraged, promoting compassion and reducing attachment.
Impermanence: Material wealth is transient; true happiness comes from spiritual fulfillment.
Detachment: Attachment to wealth can lead to suffering; balance is essential.
Overall, Buddhism advocates for a mindful approach to wealth, emphasizing moral conduct and spiritual growth.
Eightfold Path: A guide to ethical and mental development, leading to enlightenment.
Karma and Rebirth: Actions influence future rebirths; ethical living leads to better outcomes.
Nirvana: The ultimate goal, a state of liberation from the cycle of birth and suffering.
Buddhism emphasizes mindfulness, compassion, and the impermanence of life.
Buddhism during 1200-1450 played a significant role in various regions:
East Asia: In China, Chan (Zen) Buddhism flourished, influencing art and culture. It emphasized meditation and direct experience.
Southeast Asia: Theravada Buddhism spread, particularly in Thailand and Burma, shaping local governance and culture.
Mongol Empire: Buddhism was promoted by some Mongol rulers, fostering cultural exchanges along trade routes.
Tibet: The establishment of Tibetan Buddhism solidified spiritual authority and political power.
Overall, Buddhism contributed to cultural integration and social stability during this period.
Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism, prominent from 1200-1450, emphasized the Bodhisattva path, encouraging practitioners to attain enlightenment for the sake of all beings. It spread widely in East Asia, influencing culture, art, and philosophy. During this period, it played a crucial role in fostering social harmony and providing spiritual support amid political changes. The establishment of monasteries and the integration of local beliefs helped Mahayana Buddhism adapt and thrive, contributing to the cultural landscape of regions like China, Korea, and Japan.
First real oceans that humans could rather than just clinging to the shorelines.
Made for long-distance trade
Ocean is of low and warm latitude
Sailors could follow a coastline across the top of their ocean at latitudes that are balmy
Connects distinct cultures, environments, and ecological variety served as a stimulus to trade.
Movement of people facilitated migration (voluntary, involutary, etc)
Melaka: Southeast Asian port of Melaka; between China and India
Home of 84 different languages
Very diverse culturally and economically
Religious teachers and missionaries also have followed in trade’s wake
Migrant communities import teachers and priests to serve
Ex: the ummas formed by Muslim sailors; Brahmin priests brought by Indian merchants in SE Asia
Dominate exclusive trade:
Ming Dynasty
Portugal (controlled sea lanes but never successful)
Dutch
French
British
Dutch and British ended up with significant territorial possessions and sufficient control over commerce to reshape sea trade and production, also had great deal of capital
Their arrival was seen as the final chapter of Indian ocean trade
Steamship made monsoons less relevant
Hajj became cheaper and safer when steamships became common.
Mainland Southeast Asia encompasses the modern countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar.
Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the Philippine and Indonesian islands as well as New Guinea.
Major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam
The Islamic expansion in Indonesia and Java was primarily through trade rather than conquest.
Merchants and traders played a significant role in spreading Islam, establishing networks that facilitated cultural exchange and the adoption of the religion. While there were some military incursions, the predominant method of Islam's spread was peaceful trade interactions.
Vietnam
Vietnam achieved political independence while participating fully in the tribute system as a vassal state.
Chinese-based examination system in Vietnam functioned
to undermine an established aristocracy
to provide some measure of social mobility for commoners
to create a merit-based scholar-gentry class to staff the bureaucracy.
Vietnam long retained a greater role for women in social and economic life, despite heavy Chinese influence.
The Vietnamese developed a variation of Chinese writing called chu nom (“southern script”), which provided the basis for an independent national literature and a vehicle for the writing of most educated women.
Hinduism was also well established by 1000 in the Champa kingdom in what is now southern Vietnam.
where Shiva was worshipped, cows were honored, and phallic imagery was prominent.
Maritime Southeast Asia
Borobudur: huge Buddhist monument in Java
Angkor Wat and the temple of Borobudur are examples of architecture influenced by religion.
Srivijaya:
Capital: Palembang was a major cosmopolitan city
A Malay kingdom that dominated the critical choke point in Indian Ocean trade at the Strait of Melaka between 670 and 1025 c.e. Like other places in Southeast Asia, Srivijaya absorbed various cultural influences from India.
Case of Srivijaya:
Connected India and China through the Strait of Melaka
the Malay Peninsula and the coast of Sumatra began to compete intensely to attract the growing number of traders and travelers making their way through the strait.
Srivijaya’s plentiful supply of gold; its access to the source of highly sought-after spices, such as cloves, nutmeg, and mace; and the taxes levied on passing ships attracted supporters and created security to the area.
Srivijayan monarchs employed Indians as advisers, clerks, or officials and assigned Sanskrit titles to their subordinates.
Imported Indian political ideas and Buddhist religious concepts
Srivijaya grew into a major center of Buddhist observance and teaching, sponsored the creation of images of the Buddha and of various bodhisattvas
Madjapahit
A significant Southeast Asian state that assimilated Hindu religious ideas.
Popular shadow puppet based on hindu epics influenced the city (Ex:Ramayana)
It was located primarily on the island of Java and was at the peak of its power in the fourteenth century.
Dominated much of what is now Indonesia and Malaya.
Khmer kingdom of Angkor
Located in modern Cambodia
Constructed the most stunning architectural expression of Hinduism in the temple complex known as Angkor Wat Temple.
Expresses a Hindu understanding of the cosmos centered on a mythical Mount Meru
Important Facts about the Khmer Kingdoms and Architecture
Khmer Empire: Flourished from the 9th to the 15th century in Southeast Asia, primarily in present-day Cambodia.
Capital: Angkor, known for its monumental architecture.
Major Rulers: Jayavarman II, Suryavarman II (builder of Angkor Wat).
Religion: Initially Hinduism, later Buddhism became prominent.
Architectural Fusion:
Hindu Influence: Temples like Angkor Wat dedicated to Vishnu, featuring intricate carvings and sculptures.
Buddhist Influence: Later structures incorporated Buddhist motifs and iconography.
Art and Culture: Blended elements from both religions, evident in temple designs and reliefs.
Key Sites
Angkor Wat: Largest religious monument in the world, showcasing both Hindu and Buddhist elements.
Bayon Temple: Known for its massive stone faces and Buddhist imagery.
Capital: Baghdad
An Arab dynasty of caliphs who governed much of the Islamic world from its capital in Baghdad beginning in 750 c.e. After 900 c.e. that empire increasingly fragmented until its overthrow by the Mongols in 1258.
Abbasids were more interested in consolidating the empire rather than expanding it.
Many local governors or military commanders asserted the autonomy of their regions, while still giving formal allegiance to the caliph in Baghdad.
Turkic-speaking pastoralists from the steppes of Central Asia came to the empire as slave soldiers and took military power.
Golden age under Caliph Harun al Rashid c. 780s:
Most prosperous period in Arab history
Jewish culture flourishes in Baghdad
Ibn Sina and Muslim philosophers translate and disseminate ideas throughout the Dar al Islam and beyond from works of philosophy and literature from different parts of the world, like Plato and Aristotle, and translate
1055 take control of Baghdad, until 1258 when Mongols take over
An empire of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, centered in Persia and present-day Iraq. Seljuk rulers adopted the Muslim title of sultan (ruler) as part of their conversion to Islam.
Turkic-speaking warriors converted to Islam
Seljuk tiles: Turkic Muslims were lovely ceramic tiles used to decorate mosques, minarets, palaces, and other public spaces.
The Mongols, another pastoral people, invaded the region, put an official end to the Abbasid caliphate in 1258, and ruled much of Persia for a time.
The Ottoman Empire began to gain control over the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. The Ottomans expanded their influence over various Islamic territories throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, solidifying their power in the region.
Major Islamic state centered on Anatolia that came to include the Balkans, parts of the Middle East, and much of North Africa; lasted in one form or another from the fourteenth to the early twentieth century.
Brought greater long-term political unity to the Islamic Middle East and North Africa.
The Ottoman Empire extended its control to much of the Middle East, Egypt, coastal North Africa, the lands surrounding the Black Sea, and even farther into Eastern Europe.
Huge territory, long duration, incorporation of many diverse peoples, and economic and cultural sophistication
The emergence of the Turks as the dominant people of the Islamic world
Ottoman sultans claimed the legacy of the earlier Abbasid Empire.
Ottomans brought to the Islamic Middle East a greater measure of political coherence, military power, economic prosperity, and cultural brilliance
The Janissaries became the elite infantry force of the Ottoman Empire.
Continuity: Ottoman Sultans add “caliph” to their title claiming legacy to the Abbasids
The early centuries of Arabic/Indian encounter were violent, as the Turkic invaders smashed Hindu and Buddhist temples and carried off vast quantities of Indian treasure.
Hindus willingly served in the political and military structures of a Muslim-ruled India.
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
Muslim communities emerged in northern India,
the egalitarian aspects of Islam attracted some disillusioned Buddhists, low-caste Hindus, and untouchables
Muslim communities were especially concentrated in the Punjab and Sind regions of northwestern India and in Bengal to the east
Only 20-25% of India’s population converted
Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar (1336–1646)
Arose in the south in 1336
The Vijayanagar empire was also a site of sustained and more peaceful Hindu-Muslim encounters.
Muslim merchants were a prominent presence in many trading ports
Agricultural economy was the most prosperous in Europe during this time
Capital: Córdoba was among the largest and most splendid cities in the world.
Astronomy, medicine, the arts, architecture, and literature flourished.
By 1000, perhaps 75 % of the population had converted to Islam.
During the reign of Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961), freedom of worship was declared, as well as the opportunity for all to rise in the state bureaucracy.
Islamic learning flourished in Spain, where, after 1000, it was increasingly transmitted to Christian Western Europe.
European scholars wanted the secular knowledge that had accumulated in the Islamic world, and they flocked to Spain to acquire it. That knowledge of philosophy, mathematics, medicine, optics, astronomy, botany, and more.
Assimilated or Arabized Christians remained religious infidels and second-class citizens in the eyes of their Muslim counterparts.
Córdoba-based Muslim regime fragmented into numerous rival states.
Tolerance turned to overt persecution against Christians and Jews.
Warfare with the remaining Christian kingdoms in northern Spain picked up in the tenth and eleventh centuries
Devout Muslims increasingly avoided contact with members of other faiths
Arabized Christians were permitted to live only in particular places.
1492, Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic monarchs of a unified Spain, took Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula.
Forcing Muslims to choose between conversion or exile.
200,000 Jews expelled from Spain because they too refused to convert.
Christian buildings incorporated Islamic artistic and architectural features.
Muslim Spain, its role was in making the rich heritage of Islamic learning available to Christian Europe
Silk Roads: Land-based trade routes that linked many regions of Eurasia.
Goods carried in large camel caravans
Caravanserai: inns or guesthouses
Central Asian commercial cities:
Danhuang (China; influenced by Buddhism)
center of Buddhist learning
Kashgar
Samarkand (influenced by Buddhism)
Goods were luxury products destined for an elite and wealthy market
Silk was the most prominent of those luxury goods
Central Asia: silk was used as currency and as a means of accumulating wealth.
China/Byzantine Empire: silk became a symbol of high status, and governments passed laws that restricted silk clothing to members of the elite.
Christendom: silk wall hangings, altar covers, and priest’s robes became highly prestigious signs of devotion and piety.
“Frame and mattress” saddle, most likely an Arab invention
Peasants in the Yangzi River delta of southern China sometimes gave up the cultivation of food crops, choosing to focus instead on producing silk, paper, porcelain, lacquerware, or iron tools.
Money that came back to China was used for metallurgy industry
Currency
Paper money (Chinese invention)
“Flying money:” merchants could secure pieces of paper from merchants families in one region and then go to another region and exchange that paper for coins.
“Bills of exchange” (European)
Credit offered by urban-based banking houses
Sakk = checks
Religion
Buddhism was spread by Indian merchants and Buddhist monks; conversion was voluntarily
Buddhist monasteries in the rich oasis towns of the Silk Roads found themselves very much involved in secular affairs
Mahayana form of Buddhism: an emphasis on compassion, and the possibility of earning merit rather than the more austere psychological teachings of the historical Buddha
China and Religion
Buddhism spread to China via silk roads in its Mahayana form
Pure Land school: faithfully repeating the name of an earlier Buddha, the Amitabha, ensured rebirth in a beautifully described heavenly realm, the Pure Land.
highly popular and authentically Chinese version of the Indian faith.
the Chinese state took direct action against the Buddhist establishment and against other foreign religions
841-845: monks and nuns to return to normal life as tax-paying citizens.
the state confiscated the lands, money, metals, and serfs belonging to monasteries
The Chan school of Chinese Buddhism: became dominant during the Song dynasty and was favored by court officials and scholars
Buddhist philosophical ideas played a role in a reformulation of Confucian thinking called Neo-Confucianism that took place during the Song dynasty
the Chinese Chan school of Buddhism had become Zen in Japan, where it was highly popular among the samurai warrior class
Neo-Confucianism had become the official ideology of the Japanese Tokugawa regime.
Founded by Sundiata/Sunjata Keita in 1235. (1235-1600)
The empire served as one polity of hunters, herders, nomads, merchants and farmers from distinct smaller states/ regions that spoke different languages.
Mali empire included grasslands and semiarid regions:
"Sudan”: savanna
The Sahel (from Sahara’s edge to the forest's edge in W. Africa)
Sahel: "shore" of the great ocean sand; semiarid edge of the dessert (Arab name)
Dealt with technology (iron/horses) and ecology (beneficial climatic shifts)
Specialist activities: blacksmithing, leatherworking, smiting, weaving, fishing
Vocab:
Griot: Mande oral historian
Nyama: supernatural; natural and mystical energy
Nasi: power of darkness
Access to sorcery was a component of political leadership; needed to wage successful military campaigns, subdue enemies, and protect one's own personal fortune.
Blacksmiths were seen as having magic in order to create metallurgy
Timbuktu: prominent and sophisticated city known for its wealth and universities
Europeans learned about it in 1500s, visited in 1800s
First state in grassland region of W. Africa: Ghana 6th century
Ghana controlled lucrative gold trade
Traded slaves, gold, (maybe salt), for salt, spices, porcelain, and silk from the Mediterranean and Silk Roads
Reason why Ghana disintegrated: (also trade got disrupted)
Droughts diminished the alluvial sources of gold
Repeated attacks of N. Africans trying to take over lucrative caravan trade
Gold, salt, copper, and kola nuts were central to Mali’s economy.
The world's largest producer of gold.
The trading partner of merchants with connections to W. Asia and beyond
Produced and supplied 2/3 of the world's gold
Walata, oldest city of Mali, trading center where Sudanese and Berber merchants and scholars interacted.
Most African societies did not have their own written indigenous languages; therefore, many upper class Africans began talking and writing in Arabic after Islamic conversion
Muslim merchants encouraged conversion to Islam during the time of the Ghana Empire.
Mali was major promoter of Islamic ideology/culture across W. Africa savanna
Arab traveler, Ibn Battuta; wrote memoir, Rihla
Shocked by luck of adherence to orthodox Islamic custom/practice
Mali officially belonged to the Islamic world, but part of their culture was a belief of Mande superiority to Islam.
Mali Empire may be credited with the diffusion of Islam after the mid-fourteenth century
Fought against a rival in a sorcery war; using nasi to defeat rival
Couldn't walk from birth
Griot's attribute to him administrative structures/ innovations the empire had:
Responsible for dividing empire into two military regions
Codification of hereditary craft clans
each clan produced a specific object (acted like a caste)
Unification of Mali occurred during his time
Created new capital: Niani, ruled there for 25 years
Niani was located near sources of iron and gold (Sankarani River); chosen as well for its trade routes.
Well known ruler and considered one of the richest person in world history
He gave too much gold away & caused the market to crash and depressed world prices.
He traveled with thousands of porters/ servants bedecked with gold to the Hajj (Mecca)
Remembered as having wasted the imperial treasury and being unfaithful to Mande traditions.
Gave gold away to poor people and built mosques
Gender inequality existed; slavery was a substantial part of commerce
More female slaves than male; prisoners of war captured became male soldiers and female slaves
Women were: posters, concubines, produced goods (salt, cloth, local foodstuffs)
Men were: hunters, farmers, merchants, specialists, soldiers
Mali was situated on an ecotone (area between borders of desert, Sahel and savanna)
Exchange between regions provided diversity of products
Internal trade and tributary relations proved necessary to the functioning of the empire.
Conditions for horses existed in the savanna grasslands of Mali
Mande's military use of the horse was important in gaining military advantage:
Rarely traded mares south of the Sahara because of the humidity and presence of the tsetse fly (deadly to horses).
Dry climatic periods (1100 - 1500) meant no tsetse fly so the territory where horses could survived in increased.
Rain forest zone was inhospitable for warriors/horses
Cavalry warfare was key to beat rivals; as well as helping the empire spread east and west.
Regions occupied by Sahelian/savanna vegetation pushed southward
Wet period (1500-1630) ; empire's fortune begun to collapse and wet conditions limited use of cavalry and put military at disadvantage.
Metallurgical skills were critically important to military success and agricultural operations:
Metal workers consisted of a caste that held nyama "energy of action”
Griots, leatherworkers, and blacksmiths provided necessary services of both practical and spiritual nature.
Lodges: made by blacksmiths; centers for the transmission of Mande culture inside host communities; secret club, required membership
Lodges offered spiritual protection and moral leadership to members
protected trade and trader
controlled physical roads/bridges that linked empire's commercial realms
Blacksmiths kept control over knowledge of smelting/metal, ritual, healing powers.
Desiccation limited extent of regions that could do iron-smelting activities
Emerged as a set of commercial city-states linked into the Indian Ocean trading network.
Combined African Bantu and Islamic cultural patterns
Region’s growing involvement with the world of Indian Ocean trade stimulated development
Swahili craft navigated the coastal waterways
Each Swahili city was politically independent
No imperial system or larger territorial states unified the world of Swahili civilization.
Many ruling families of Swahili cities claimed Arab or Persian origins as a way of bolstering their prestige
Swahili civilization rapidly became Islamic
City located in Africa’s Swahili coast
Kilwa Sultanate refers to a medieval Islamic city-state centered on the Island of Kilwa Kisiwani.
Colonized by Portugal and later had a down fall
Sultanate of Oman invaded and took over Kilwa; the city later lost its glory and got abandoned.
Gereza; portuguese military fort
Kilwa was the principal port of coastal trading cities
It exported gold and imported goods from China
Chinese materials were found in the ruins of Kilwa
Persian and Arabic customs shaped the culture of Kilwa/Swahili
Kilwa Chronicle: medieval genealogy of the city state’s kings
Influx of Muslim traders led to the implementation of Islam in the region
Scholar named Chittick proved native Africans constructed the city
Europeans believed outsiders built Kilwa. They didnt think native people did it.
Economy was based on gold which provided money to build sophisticated buildings and develop the city
Europe grew demand on hard currency
Structures were built using the island’s distinctive coral stone
African civilization that was Christian
Urban, centered in cities of 15,000 to 18,000 people
Accumulated goods from the interior and exchanged them for the products of distant civilizations
Chinese porcelain and silk, Persian rugs, and Indian cottons
Sky god, deity of the steppe: authority to rule comes from the deity
Mongols implemented a strong political system and used the already created systems of the places they conquered
Yam system: communication network in the form of a courier system operated by riders on horseback facilitated military operations
Increase in Silk Road trade due to increase in security
Mongols made money through taxes
Military was organized into units of 10
mounted warriors were trained to loose their arrows on horseback; didn’t use armor
Steppe diplomacy: courage in battle; loyalty to allies; the ability to betray the same allies to gain advantage, even if they are family. If a general screwed up, they faced major consequences including demotion.
Created written scripture and law code to make administrations of tribes
Mongols had: sheep, goats, yaks, camels, horses
Mongols needed: grain, textiles, tea
Reason for Mongol success:
adaptation of the traditional technology of horsebreeding to environment
abandonment of chariots and use of well-armed warriors on horseback
Khan’s governing style:
Advancements in Mongol Culture
Brilliant military strategist
Khan and his armies conquered most of the Eurasia at the cost of 17 million dead, or 5% of the world’s population by the 1250s.
Mongols were tolerant to other religions
They were animist/shamanist
Walled towns or cities that did not surrender immediately and agree to supply the Mongol armies with food were attacked and their populations slaughtered; men, women, and children
Yuan Dynasty - China
Golden Horde - Russia
Il Khanate - Persia and Middle East
Changatai - Mongolia and Central Asia
Death of Ogodei Khan (khan of khans) stopped the expansion/conquest to western Europe in 1241
Ruler: Kublai Khan (1215-1294), grandson of Chinggis Khan
Before conquest of Jurchen Jin state in N.China:
Original Mongol plan: to turn north China into pasturage for the Mongols’ herds
Jurchen Jin state convinced Ogodei not to do this; rather, turn it into agricultural productivity
Stable economy because of Chinese econ. practices
Agricultural output of N. China + advanced iron technology + skilled labor force of ironworkers = continued expansion of Mongol empire
Use of already established practices facilitated Mongol takeover of power
Inside the government and time during rule:
New capital: Beijing
Chinese natives believed Mongol rule was harsh, hostile, foreign and they resented it
Many scholars did not like Mongol rule
some served but others left the administration
weakened administration and political power
Civil service exams stayed in place
favored Mongols, Turkic Uighurs, and non-Chinese people
discriminated against Hans and other Chinese people
Mongols didn’t become Chinese
never learned the language only discriminated against them
Yuan China connected overland route through the Mongol Empire with the oceanic routes through the South China Sea/ Indian Ocean
Fall out
1350s: Chinese native led rebellions against Mongols
Reasons why Mongols fell:
weak authority and control
intense factionalism among Mongols
epidemics of plague
peasant rebellions
1368: Mongol Empire falls and they return to the steppe
1238: Mongols appear in the southern Russian steppe and cease Russian princes power
Mongols settled down on the Hungarian plain; where their administration was established
1380: princes of Muscovy (Moscow) assumed leadership of the emerging Russian state
Ivan the Great pushed Mongols out of Russia
Nomadic Pastoralism Gender Roles
Women’s role:
drove ox or camel wagons
skilled archers
tended animals
able to participate in battle
more prestige than East/South Asian counterparts
Men’s role:
warriors
tended animals
Shamanism: religious specialists who communicated with animist forces in the natural world; along with animist spirits, Mongols believes in the Sky God.
After conquering settled regions, many Mongols converted to Islam or Buddhism
After Chinggis’ killing spree, Mongol armies were peaceful and granted religious freedom
The empire guaranteed the safety of merchants and travelers on the SIlk Roads, increasing trade and communication between Europe and Asia
Mongols taxed the roads
Established a passport system called ‘paiza’
Ease of travel paved the way for the spread of the Black Death in 1340s
said to have originated in China
Period after the fall of Rome and the Renaissance
Christian monasteries preserved art, culture, the faith, and learning through scribes
After the Roman Empire fell, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) maintained defense of Europe and Christianity long after Western Europe was overrun by pagan “barbarians”
Hagia Sophia: huge, very important Christian church; later became Islamic mosque
Religion: Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Capital: Constantinople
dominated by Greek language and culture
used Greco-Roman, Celtic, and Germanic culture/ideas
Although many things changed, inhabitants referred to themselves as Romans and the empire remained called the Roman Empire
1200: Empire begins to weaken
Constantine XI: last Byzantine emperor
1453: Muslim Ottoman Turks take over
used canons to tear down walls surrounding Constantinople
violence broke out after Turkic take over and the city was destructed
Mehmed II: Turkic emperor, age 19
Constantinople became Muslim and the capital of the Ottoman Empire
Europe experiences an increase in trade
Pooling investments for risky ventures: business practices from the Muslim world
Paper letters of credit and checks: East Asian and Muslim financial practices
Usury: charging of interest
Christian church prohibited this
Jews lended money to Christians and people who needed ready cash
Chivalry: honor code that was followed by nobility estate
Unwritten code based on faith, piety, and order
Miles Christi; soldiers of Christ
young men who became knights
knights took a vow to protect innocent, serve his lord, and vanquish the enemies of Christianity
he was not expected to enjoy material wealth , or power for its own sake
Troubadours and aristocratic women diffused the chivalry code
Women patronized, supported, and encouraged the artists
women wanted to emulate Virgin Mary
1200s-1300s: Fairs of Champagne were established
lasted 2-3 weeks
linked all of Europe
traded goods: dyed wool, spices, and leather goods
helped revived economy of Medieval Europe
land-based trade
The Hanse, or Hanseatic League: German maritime trading alliance
united London, northern Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavic Poland, and the Baltics
traded: low value bulk goods (lumber, fish, wool, wine)
water-based trade
Begins when Constantine converts and establishes Christianity as state religion
Beginnings
Unofficially founded in Dec. 25, 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, the ruler of most of central and western Europe, as emperor of the Romans
Empire was neither holy, nor roman, nor an empire
never achieved political unity
The creation of the empire was an attempt at creating a centralized political organization in Western Europe after the fall of Ancient Rome
Empire had tension with the Pope, and had difficulty in maintaining order over dozens of principalities
Though influential, the empire never threatened or scared the independence of dukedoms/kingdoms into submission
1400s: the Hansburg family of Austria dominated elections for emperor, won, and maintained the role within the family for many years
Access to important trade routes in Western Europe was extremely difficult
Population growth:
moderate climate facilitated agricultural expansion
Practices were feudalism and manorialism:
Feudalism: military service in exchange for land
Manorialism: the organization of large estates (manors) into economically self sufficient units
c. 1000s: Europe began to crystallize into systems of competing states with different cultures, languages, and monarchs
Royal courts, fledging bureaucracies, parliament, and professional administrators were established.
Rulers were weaker than Asian counterparts; had to compete against neighbor kingdoms and the church
Europeans valued educations and wanted to have many scholars/bureaucrats
Europeans first utilized gunpower in canons
1500s: they had the most advanced arsenal worldwide
Urban-based merchants in Europe grew wealthy because of lack of government control over trade
European govs. allowed cities to act as independent city-states but had to pay taxes
Pope; bishop of Rome
Cardinals; elects/advises the Pope
Bishops; supervise priests
Priests
Catholics
Countries are divided into regions called dioceses that had an archbishops as leader
They were active in urban professions like: weaving, brewing, milling grain, midwifery, small-scale retailing, laundering, spinning, prostitution.
Later on, women were restricted/banned from working in many trades by the 15th century
Converting to nuns would allow women to gain some level of education
mostly aristocratic women converted
1300s: the rights of nuns became restricted and men saw them as intellectually inferior
Men who devoted their lives to religion were called monks.
Monks lived in monasteries
Women who devoted their lives to religion were called nuns
Nuns lived in convents
Together they made up the clergy
Monasteries controlled the scriptures; most monks were scribes
Community services of the clergy:
Ran hospitals and orphanages
Welcomed travelers, giving them food and a night’s lodging (people going on pilgrimages)
Taught school
Were missionaries
Priests lived among villagers and took care of local churches
Priests collect the tide: 10% tax of income, and send it to Rome
The church was a religious power, but also a worldly power
Rulers provided protection to the papacy and the Pope provided religious legitimacy for the ruler
made laws and set up courts to enforce them
could crown kings (Charlemagne)
could send men to war (Crusades)
collected taxes and accepted fiefs, in exchange for religious services
pope was a landlord and controlled territory called the Papal States in central Italy
pope has its own army
catholic church grew wealthy which gave educational initiatives
Books were copied onto parchment paper-like material made from sheepskin
Monks wrote books of prayer and poetry and also copied old Greek/Roman texts
Beautifully decorated books were called illuminated manuscripts
The patron saint of Europe; created the concept of the monastic style
Before him, monks lived an ascetic life
He felt their lives needed to be more purposeful
His Rules:
8 hours of prayer
8 hours of sleep
8 hours of manual labor, charity, or reading scriptures
Location: Western South America (Peru)
Capital: Cusco
Inca governing styles
The Inca conquered neighboring tribes but did not remove
their leadership.
Tribal leaders took an oath of loyalty to the Inca, sent their children to Cusco as hostages, and ruled their own territories in the name of the Inca.
Advanced Agriculture
Main crop: potatoes
Used terraces to farm the vertical slopes of the Andes
Practiced terrace farming and used the quipu for record-keeping.
Food was stored incase of a shortage
Ayllus: clans
Had an efficient road system
Constructed 25,000 miles of roads through the Andes
Mita labor system built and maintained the roads
Government use only and to move armies quickly around the empire.
Polytheistic religion who preformed rituals
Impressive stone architecture (Machu Picchu)
Incans were renowned for their construction techniques with
stone.
Had a highly organized centralized government, and deeply focused on the infrastructure and order of their empire
Location: Mexico
Advanced Agriculture
Performed Human Sacrifice based rituals
Mainly for their Sun god
Mainly people they captured at war
Empire was war-driven, expanding through conquest
They worshipped many gods, especially sun and war gods
A period in Chinese history known for its cultural, economic, and technological advancements. It is divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960-1127) and the Southern Song (1127-1279). Key features include:
Economic Growth: Expansion of trade and commerce.
Cultural Flourishing: Advances in art, literature, and philosophy.
Technological Innovations: Inventions like gunpowder and the compass.
Social Structure: Emergence of a scholar-official class.
The Song Dynasty is often regarded as a high point in Chinese civilization.
Key Points of the Song Dynasty
Confucian Expansion: Emphasis on Confucian ideals influenced governance and social structure.
During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Confucianism experienced a revival and expansion, particularly through the development of Neo-Confucianism. This philosophical movement integrated Confucian thought with Buddhist and Daoist elements, emphasizing moral self-cultivation, social harmony, and the importance of education. The state promoted Confucian ideals, leading to the establishment of civil service exams based on Confucian texts, which reinforced its influence in governance and society. This period marked a significant cultural and intellectual flourishing in China.
Tributary System: The "Middle Kingdom" concept reinforced China's centrality in East Asia, but reliance on tributary states created diplomatic challenges.
Population Boom/Urban Expansion: Rapid population growth led to urbanization, straining resources and infrastructure.
The population boom during Song China (960-1279 AD) can be attributed to several factors:
Agricultural Innovations: Introduction of new rice strains, such as Champa rice, which allowed for multiple harvests per year.
Improved Farming Techniques: Advancements in irrigation and farming tools increased productivity.
Economic Growth: Expansion of trade and commerce led to better living standards.
Urbanization: Growth of cities attracted people for jobs and opportunities.
These factors combined contributed to a significant increase in population during this period.
Military Weakness: Inadequate military strength and inability to defend against invasions contributed to the dynasty's decline.
The downfall of Song China (960-1279) can be attributed to several key factors:
Military Weakness: The Song dynasty struggled with military defense, particularly against northern tribes like the Jurchens, leading to territorial losses.
Economic Strain: Heavy taxation and reliance on trade made the economy vulnerable, especially during military conflicts.
Political Corruption: Bureaucratic inefficiencies and corruption weakened governance and public trust.
Cultural Focus: The emphasis on arts and culture over military prowess left the state ill-prepared for external threats.
Mongol Invasion: Ultimately, the Mongol conquests in the 13th century led to the fall of the Song dynasty and the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.
Definition: Southernization is the process by which ideas, technology, and culture from South and Southeast Asia spread to other parts of the world, shaping global development. Creates a prosperous south.
Order of expansion:
Starts during the 5th Century at India
By that time it goes to China
8th Century it goes to the Middle East/The lands of Muslim Caliphates
13th century its affecting the Christian Mediterranean
Diffused Via: Trade
Indian cotton textiles start Southernization
High demand causes Indian trade of these to significantly increase “India virtually clothed the world"
Search for new sources of Bullion forces Indian sailors to travel
Siberia was India’s main source of gold—>nomadic disturbances in Central Asia disrupt their trade—> Indian sailors travel to find an alternative source—> Ethiopian merchants that had lots of gold became India’s most important trade partners
Achievements
Learn how to crystalize sugar and popularize this product
Became leaders of astronomy, medicine, & math
Math: Lay foundation of modern math, “Arab” numerals came from India, and invest cero, extremely advanced in this area
Advanced artistically, musically, & philosophically
Invent chess & hair dye
First to start riding the monsoons
Extremely talented sailors that used nature to navigate
Establishes first contact between India & Southeast Asia
Desire/Demand for Silk
Arrived & Influenced Madagascar
Underlaid the revolutionary social, political, economic, and technological developments of the Tang & the Song
Effects:
Developed math
Established indigo & cotton
Made sugar an important crop
Introduced new varieties of rice-Champa from Vietnam
Drought-resistant & early ripening properties=begins systematic terracing with rice cultivation spreading up the hillsides, doubling area of rice cultivation, doubling the Chinese population
South area of China transforms into one of the most prosperous/commercialized parts of empire
Three technologies they developed(compass, printing, gunpowder) changes world
Arab cavalries were in process of conquering new plans, and when they established on the Indian frontier, they became influenced by elements of southernization.
Arab conquest:
Spreads important crops and popularize them
First to import large numbers of enslaved Africans to produce sugar= (widely popularize the crop)
Discover/diffuse new sources of bullion
Adopt & advance Indian math
Develop/improve the Chinese compass & become the first to use it for navigation
China
Confucian Influence: Women were expected to be obedient to fathers, husbands, and sons.
Foot binding: practice of bending a young girl’s foot into the size of a mini slipper to showcase high/elite status
Marriage: Arranged marriages were common; women managed households.
Education: Limited access, primarily for elite women.
Japan
Heian Period: Women of the court had more freedom; literature flourished (e.g., "The Tale of Genji").
Samurai Class: Women managed estates in the absence of men.
Korea
Confucianism: Similar to China, with strict roles emphasizing domestic duties.
Korean restrictions on elite women, especially widows, came to exceed even those in China itself.
Inheritance: Women could inherit property, but their roles were largely confined to the home.
Vietnam
Matriarchal Elements: Women held significant roles in agriculture and family.
Resistance: Notable figures like Trung Sisters led revolts against Chinese rule.
Southeast Asia (General)
Diverse Roles: Varied by region; some societies had matrilineal structures.
Trade and Economy: Women participated in local markets and trade.
This overview highlights the complexity and diversity of women's roles across different cultures and regions during this period.
Buddhism is a spiritual tradition founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th century BCE. Its core ideologies include:
Four Noble Truths: Understanding suffering, its cause, the possibility of cessation, and the path to liberation.
The Four Noble Truths are fundamental teachings in Buddhism:
Dukkha: Life is characterized by suffering and dissatisfaction.
Samudaya: The cause of suffering is craving and attachment.
Nirodha: Suffering can be overcome by eliminating craving.
Magga: The path to the cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path, which includes right understanding, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration.
Monasticism in Buddhism refers to the practice of renouncing worldly life to pursue spiritual development. Monks and nuns live in monastic communities, following strict ethical codes and engaging in meditation, study, and communal activities. Key aspects include:
Vinaya: The monastic code of conduct.
Meditation: Central to spiritual practice.
Community (Sangha): Supportive environment for practice.
Teaching: Monastics often teach laypeople.
Monasticism plays a crucial role in preserving and transmitting Buddhist teachings.
In Buddhism, wealth is viewed with a nuanced perspective. It is not inherently good or bad; rather, it depends on how it is acquired and used. Key messages include:
Right Livelihood: Wealth should be earned ethically, avoiding harm to others.
Generosity: Sharing wealth is encouraged, promoting compassion and reducing attachment.
Impermanence: Material wealth is transient; true happiness comes from spiritual fulfillment.
Detachment: Attachment to wealth can lead to suffering; balance is essential.
Overall, Buddhism advocates for a mindful approach to wealth, emphasizing moral conduct and spiritual growth.
Eightfold Path: A guide to ethical and mental development, leading to enlightenment.
Karma and Rebirth: Actions influence future rebirths; ethical living leads to better outcomes.
Nirvana: The ultimate goal, a state of liberation from the cycle of birth and suffering.
Buddhism emphasizes mindfulness, compassion, and the impermanence of life.
Buddhism during 1200-1450 played a significant role in various regions:
East Asia: In China, Chan (Zen) Buddhism flourished, influencing art and culture. It emphasized meditation and direct experience.
Southeast Asia: Theravada Buddhism spread, particularly in Thailand and Burma, shaping local governance and culture.
Mongol Empire: Buddhism was promoted by some Mongol rulers, fostering cultural exchanges along trade routes.
Tibet: The establishment of Tibetan Buddhism solidified spiritual authority and political power.
Overall, Buddhism contributed to cultural integration and social stability during this period.
Mahayana Buddhism
Mahayana Buddhism, prominent from 1200-1450, emphasized the Bodhisattva path, encouraging practitioners to attain enlightenment for the sake of all beings. It spread widely in East Asia, influencing culture, art, and philosophy. During this period, it played a crucial role in fostering social harmony and providing spiritual support amid political changes. The establishment of monasteries and the integration of local beliefs helped Mahayana Buddhism adapt and thrive, contributing to the cultural landscape of regions like China, Korea, and Japan.
First real oceans that humans could rather than just clinging to the shorelines.
Made for long-distance trade
Ocean is of low and warm latitude
Sailors could follow a coastline across the top of their ocean at latitudes that are balmy
Connects distinct cultures, environments, and ecological variety served as a stimulus to trade.
Movement of people facilitated migration (voluntary, involutary, etc)
Melaka: Southeast Asian port of Melaka; between China and India
Home of 84 different languages
Very diverse culturally and economically
Religious teachers and missionaries also have followed in trade’s wake
Migrant communities import teachers and priests to serve
Ex: the ummas formed by Muslim sailors; Brahmin priests brought by Indian merchants in SE Asia
Dominate exclusive trade:
Ming Dynasty
Portugal (controlled sea lanes but never successful)
Dutch
French
British
Dutch and British ended up with significant territorial possessions and sufficient control over commerce to reshape sea trade and production, also had great deal of capital
Their arrival was seen as the final chapter of Indian ocean trade
Steamship made monsoons less relevant
Hajj became cheaper and safer when steamships became common.
Mainland Southeast Asia encompasses the modern countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar.
Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the Philippine and Indonesian islands as well as New Guinea.
Major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam
The Islamic expansion in Indonesia and Java was primarily through trade rather than conquest.
Merchants and traders played a significant role in spreading Islam, establishing networks that facilitated cultural exchange and the adoption of the religion. While there were some military incursions, the predominant method of Islam's spread was peaceful trade interactions.
Vietnam
Vietnam achieved political independence while participating fully in the tribute system as a vassal state.
Chinese-based examination system in Vietnam functioned
to undermine an established aristocracy
to provide some measure of social mobility for commoners
to create a merit-based scholar-gentry class to staff the bureaucracy.
Vietnam long retained a greater role for women in social and economic life, despite heavy Chinese influence.
The Vietnamese developed a variation of Chinese writing called chu nom (“southern script”), which provided the basis for an independent national literature and a vehicle for the writing of most educated women.
Hinduism was also well established by 1000 in the Champa kingdom in what is now southern Vietnam.
where Shiva was worshipped, cows were honored, and phallic imagery was prominent.
Maritime Southeast Asia
Borobudur: huge Buddhist monument in Java
Angkor Wat and the temple of Borobudur are examples of architecture influenced by religion.
Srivijaya:
Capital: Palembang was a major cosmopolitan city
A Malay kingdom that dominated the critical choke point in Indian Ocean trade at the Strait of Melaka between 670 and 1025 c.e. Like other places in Southeast Asia, Srivijaya absorbed various cultural influences from India.
Case of Srivijaya:
Connected India and China through the Strait of Melaka
the Malay Peninsula and the coast of Sumatra began to compete intensely to attract the growing number of traders and travelers making their way through the strait.
Srivijaya’s plentiful supply of gold; its access to the source of highly sought-after spices, such as cloves, nutmeg, and mace; and the taxes levied on passing ships attracted supporters and created security to the area.
Srivijayan monarchs employed Indians as advisers, clerks, or officials and assigned Sanskrit titles to their subordinates.
Imported Indian political ideas and Buddhist religious concepts
Srivijaya grew into a major center of Buddhist observance and teaching, sponsored the creation of images of the Buddha and of various bodhisattvas
Madjapahit
A significant Southeast Asian state that assimilated Hindu religious ideas.
Popular shadow puppet based on hindu epics influenced the city (Ex:Ramayana)
It was located primarily on the island of Java and was at the peak of its power in the fourteenth century.
Dominated much of what is now Indonesia and Malaya.
Khmer kingdom of Angkor
Located in modern Cambodia
Constructed the most stunning architectural expression of Hinduism in the temple complex known as Angkor Wat Temple.
Expresses a Hindu understanding of the cosmos centered on a mythical Mount Meru
Important Facts about the Khmer Kingdoms and Architecture
Khmer Empire: Flourished from the 9th to the 15th century in Southeast Asia, primarily in present-day Cambodia.
Capital: Angkor, known for its monumental architecture.
Major Rulers: Jayavarman II, Suryavarman II (builder of Angkor Wat).
Religion: Initially Hinduism, later Buddhism became prominent.
Architectural Fusion:
Hindu Influence: Temples like Angkor Wat dedicated to Vishnu, featuring intricate carvings and sculptures.
Buddhist Influence: Later structures incorporated Buddhist motifs and iconography.
Art and Culture: Blended elements from both religions, evident in temple designs and reliefs.
Key Sites
Angkor Wat: Largest religious monument in the world, showcasing both Hindu and Buddhist elements.
Bayon Temple: Known for its massive stone faces and Buddhist imagery.
Capital: Baghdad
An Arab dynasty of caliphs who governed much of the Islamic world from its capital in Baghdad beginning in 750 c.e. After 900 c.e. that empire increasingly fragmented until its overthrow by the Mongols in 1258.
Abbasids were more interested in consolidating the empire rather than expanding it.
Many local governors or military commanders asserted the autonomy of their regions, while still giving formal allegiance to the caliph in Baghdad.
Turkic-speaking pastoralists from the steppes of Central Asia came to the empire as slave soldiers and took military power.
Golden age under Caliph Harun al Rashid c. 780s:
Most prosperous period in Arab history
Jewish culture flourishes in Baghdad
Ibn Sina and Muslim philosophers translate and disseminate ideas throughout the Dar al Islam and beyond from works of philosophy and literature from different parts of the world, like Plato and Aristotle, and translate
1055 take control of Baghdad, until 1258 when Mongols take over
An empire of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, centered in Persia and present-day Iraq. Seljuk rulers adopted the Muslim title of sultan (ruler) as part of their conversion to Islam.
Turkic-speaking warriors converted to Islam
Seljuk tiles: Turkic Muslims were lovely ceramic tiles used to decorate mosques, minarets, palaces, and other public spaces.
The Mongols, another pastoral people, invaded the region, put an official end to the Abbasid caliphate in 1258, and ruled much of Persia for a time.
The Ottoman Empire began to gain control over the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. The Ottomans expanded their influence over various Islamic territories throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, solidifying their power in the region.
Major Islamic state centered on Anatolia that came to include the Balkans, parts of the Middle East, and much of North Africa; lasted in one form or another from the fourteenth to the early twentieth century.
Brought greater long-term political unity to the Islamic Middle East and North Africa.
The Ottoman Empire extended its control to much of the Middle East, Egypt, coastal North Africa, the lands surrounding the Black Sea, and even farther into Eastern Europe.
Huge territory, long duration, incorporation of many diverse peoples, and economic and cultural sophistication
The emergence of the Turks as the dominant people of the Islamic world
Ottoman sultans claimed the legacy of the earlier Abbasid Empire.
Ottomans brought to the Islamic Middle East a greater measure of political coherence, military power, economic prosperity, and cultural brilliance
The Janissaries became the elite infantry force of the Ottoman Empire.
Continuity: Ottoman Sultans add “caliph” to their title claiming legacy to the Abbasids
The early centuries of Arabic/Indian encounter were violent, as the Turkic invaders smashed Hindu and Buddhist temples and carried off vast quantities of Indian treasure.
Hindus willingly served in the political and military structures of a Muslim-ruled India.
Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
Muslim communities emerged in northern India,
the egalitarian aspects of Islam attracted some disillusioned Buddhists, low-caste Hindus, and untouchables
Muslim communities were especially concentrated in the Punjab and Sind regions of northwestern India and in Bengal to the east
Only 20-25% of India’s population converted
Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar (1336–1646)
Arose in the south in 1336
The Vijayanagar empire was also a site of sustained and more peaceful Hindu-Muslim encounters.
Muslim merchants were a prominent presence in many trading ports
Agricultural economy was the most prosperous in Europe during this time
Capital: Córdoba was among the largest and most splendid cities in the world.
Astronomy, medicine, the arts, architecture, and literature flourished.
By 1000, perhaps 75 % of the population had converted to Islam.
During the reign of Abd al-Rahman III (r. 912–961), freedom of worship was declared, as well as the opportunity for all to rise in the state bureaucracy.
Islamic learning flourished in Spain, where, after 1000, it was increasingly transmitted to Christian Western Europe.
European scholars wanted the secular knowledge that had accumulated in the Islamic world, and they flocked to Spain to acquire it. That knowledge of philosophy, mathematics, medicine, optics, astronomy, botany, and more.
Assimilated or Arabized Christians remained religious infidels and second-class citizens in the eyes of their Muslim counterparts.
Córdoba-based Muslim regime fragmented into numerous rival states.
Tolerance turned to overt persecution against Christians and Jews.
Warfare with the remaining Christian kingdoms in northern Spain picked up in the tenth and eleventh centuries
Devout Muslims increasingly avoided contact with members of other faiths
Arabized Christians were permitted to live only in particular places.
1492, Ferdinand and Isabella, the Catholic monarchs of a unified Spain, took Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula.
Forcing Muslims to choose between conversion or exile.
200,000 Jews expelled from Spain because they too refused to convert.
Christian buildings incorporated Islamic artistic and architectural features.
Muslim Spain, its role was in making the rich heritage of Islamic learning available to Christian Europe
Silk Roads: Land-based trade routes that linked many regions of Eurasia.
Goods carried in large camel caravans
Caravanserai: inns or guesthouses
Central Asian commercial cities:
Danhuang (China; influenced by Buddhism)
center of Buddhist learning
Kashgar
Samarkand (influenced by Buddhism)
Goods were luxury products destined for an elite and wealthy market
Silk was the most prominent of those luxury goods
Central Asia: silk was used as currency and as a means of accumulating wealth.
China/Byzantine Empire: silk became a symbol of high status, and governments passed laws that restricted silk clothing to members of the elite.
Christendom: silk wall hangings, altar covers, and priest’s robes became highly prestigious signs of devotion and piety.
“Frame and mattress” saddle, most likely an Arab invention
Peasants in the Yangzi River delta of southern China sometimes gave up the cultivation of food crops, choosing to focus instead on producing silk, paper, porcelain, lacquerware, or iron tools.
Money that came back to China was used for metallurgy industry
Currency
Paper money (Chinese invention)
“Flying money:” merchants could secure pieces of paper from merchants families in one region and then go to another region and exchange that paper for coins.
“Bills of exchange” (European)
Credit offered by urban-based banking houses
Sakk = checks
Religion
Buddhism was spread by Indian merchants and Buddhist monks; conversion was voluntarily
Buddhist monasteries in the rich oasis towns of the Silk Roads found themselves very much involved in secular affairs
Mahayana form of Buddhism: an emphasis on compassion, and the possibility of earning merit rather than the more austere psychological teachings of the historical Buddha
China and Religion
Buddhism spread to China via silk roads in its Mahayana form
Pure Land school: faithfully repeating the name of an earlier Buddha, the Amitabha, ensured rebirth in a beautifully described heavenly realm, the Pure Land.
highly popular and authentically Chinese version of the Indian faith.
the Chinese state took direct action against the Buddhist establishment and against other foreign religions
841-845: monks and nuns to return to normal life as tax-paying citizens.
the state confiscated the lands, money, metals, and serfs belonging to monasteries
The Chan school of Chinese Buddhism: became dominant during the Song dynasty and was favored by court officials and scholars
Buddhist philosophical ideas played a role in a reformulation of Confucian thinking called Neo-Confucianism that took place during the Song dynasty
the Chinese Chan school of Buddhism had become Zen in Japan, where it was highly popular among the samurai warrior class
Neo-Confucianism had become the official ideology of the Japanese Tokugawa regime.
Founded by Sundiata/Sunjata Keita in 1235. (1235-1600)
The empire served as one polity of hunters, herders, nomads, merchants and farmers from distinct smaller states/ regions that spoke different languages.
Mali empire included grasslands and semiarid regions:
"Sudan”: savanna
The Sahel (from Sahara’s edge to the forest's edge in W. Africa)
Sahel: "shore" of the great ocean sand; semiarid edge of the dessert (Arab name)
Dealt with technology (iron/horses) and ecology (beneficial climatic shifts)
Specialist activities: blacksmithing, leatherworking, smiting, weaving, fishing
Vocab:
Griot: Mande oral historian
Nyama: supernatural; natural and mystical energy
Nasi: power of darkness
Access to sorcery was a component of political leadership; needed to wage successful military campaigns, subdue enemies, and protect one's own personal fortune.
Blacksmiths were seen as having magic in order to create metallurgy
Timbuktu: prominent and sophisticated city known for its wealth and universities
Europeans learned about it in 1500s, visited in 1800s
First state in grassland region of W. Africa: Ghana 6th century
Ghana controlled lucrative gold trade
Traded slaves, gold, (maybe salt), for salt, spices, porcelain, and silk from the Mediterranean and Silk Roads
Reason why Ghana disintegrated: (also trade got disrupted)
Droughts diminished the alluvial sources of gold
Repeated attacks of N. Africans trying to take over lucrative caravan trade
Gold, salt, copper, and kola nuts were central to Mali’s economy.
The world's largest producer of gold.
The trading partner of merchants with connections to W. Asia and beyond
Produced and supplied 2/3 of the world's gold
Walata, oldest city of Mali, trading center where Sudanese and Berber merchants and scholars interacted.
Most African societies did not have their own written indigenous languages; therefore, many upper class Africans began talking and writing in Arabic after Islamic conversion
Muslim merchants encouraged conversion to Islam during the time of the Ghana Empire.
Mali was major promoter of Islamic ideology/culture across W. Africa savanna
Arab traveler, Ibn Battuta; wrote memoir, Rihla
Shocked by luck of adherence to orthodox Islamic custom/practice
Mali officially belonged to the Islamic world, but part of their culture was a belief of Mande superiority to Islam.
Mali Empire may be credited with the diffusion of Islam after the mid-fourteenth century
Fought against a rival in a sorcery war; using nasi to defeat rival
Couldn't walk from birth
Griot's attribute to him administrative structures/ innovations the empire had:
Responsible for dividing empire into two military regions
Codification of hereditary craft clans
each clan produced a specific object (acted like a caste)
Unification of Mali occurred during his time
Created new capital: Niani, ruled there for 25 years
Niani was located near sources of iron and gold (Sankarani River); chosen as well for its trade routes.
Well known ruler and considered one of the richest person in world history
He gave too much gold away & caused the market to crash and depressed world prices.
He traveled with thousands of porters/ servants bedecked with gold to the Hajj (Mecca)
Remembered as having wasted the imperial treasury and being unfaithful to Mande traditions.
Gave gold away to poor people and built mosques
Gender inequality existed; slavery was a substantial part of commerce
More female slaves than male; prisoners of war captured became male soldiers and female slaves
Women were: posters, concubines, produced goods (salt, cloth, local foodstuffs)
Men were: hunters, farmers, merchants, specialists, soldiers
Mali was situated on an ecotone (area between borders of desert, Sahel and savanna)
Exchange between regions provided diversity of products
Internal trade and tributary relations proved necessary to the functioning of the empire.
Conditions for horses existed in the savanna grasslands of Mali
Mande's military use of the horse was important in gaining military advantage:
Rarely traded mares south of the Sahara because of the humidity and presence of the tsetse fly (deadly to horses).
Dry climatic periods (1100 - 1500) meant no tsetse fly so the territory where horses could survived in increased.
Rain forest zone was inhospitable for warriors/horses
Cavalry warfare was key to beat rivals; as well as helping the empire spread east and west.
Regions occupied by Sahelian/savanna vegetation pushed southward
Wet period (1500-1630) ; empire's fortune begun to collapse and wet conditions limited use of cavalry and put military at disadvantage.
Metallurgical skills were critically important to military success and agricultural operations:
Metal workers consisted of a caste that held nyama "energy of action”
Griots, leatherworkers, and blacksmiths provided necessary services of both practical and spiritual nature.
Lodges: made by blacksmiths; centers for the transmission of Mande culture inside host communities; secret club, required membership
Lodges offered spiritual protection and moral leadership to members
protected trade and trader
controlled physical roads/bridges that linked empire's commercial realms
Blacksmiths kept control over knowledge of smelting/metal, ritual, healing powers.
Desiccation limited extent of regions that could do iron-smelting activities
Emerged as a set of commercial city-states linked into the Indian Ocean trading network.
Combined African Bantu and Islamic cultural patterns
Region’s growing involvement with the world of Indian Ocean trade stimulated development
Swahili craft navigated the coastal waterways
Each Swahili city was politically independent
No imperial system or larger territorial states unified the world of Swahili civilization.
Many ruling families of Swahili cities claimed Arab or Persian origins as a way of bolstering their prestige
Swahili civilization rapidly became Islamic
City located in Africa’s Swahili coast
Kilwa Sultanate refers to a medieval Islamic city-state centered on the Island of Kilwa Kisiwani.
Colonized by Portugal and later had a down fall
Sultanate of Oman invaded and took over Kilwa; the city later lost its glory and got abandoned.
Gereza; portuguese military fort
Kilwa was the principal port of coastal trading cities
It exported gold and imported goods from China
Chinese materials were found in the ruins of Kilwa
Persian and Arabic customs shaped the culture of Kilwa/Swahili
Kilwa Chronicle: medieval genealogy of the city state’s kings
Influx of Muslim traders led to the implementation of Islam in the region
Scholar named Chittick proved native Africans constructed the city
Europeans believed outsiders built Kilwa. They didnt think native people did it.
Economy was based on gold which provided money to build sophisticated buildings and develop the city
Europe grew demand on hard currency
Structures were built using the island’s distinctive coral stone
African civilization that was Christian
Urban, centered in cities of 15,000 to 18,000 people
Accumulated goods from the interior and exchanged them for the products of distant civilizations
Chinese porcelain and silk, Persian rugs, and Indian cottons
Sky god, deity of the steppe: authority to rule comes from the deity
Mongols implemented a strong political system and used the already created systems of the places they conquered
Yam system: communication network in the form of a courier system operated by riders on horseback facilitated military operations
Increase in Silk Road trade due to increase in security
Mongols made money through taxes
Military was organized into units of 10
mounted warriors were trained to loose their arrows on horseback; didn’t use armor
Steppe diplomacy: courage in battle; loyalty to allies; the ability to betray the same allies to gain advantage, even if they are family. If a general screwed up, they faced major consequences including demotion.
Created written scripture and law code to make administrations of tribes
Mongols had: sheep, goats, yaks, camels, horses
Mongols needed: grain, textiles, tea
Reason for Mongol success:
adaptation of the traditional technology of horsebreeding to environment
abandonment of chariots and use of well-armed warriors on horseback
Khan’s governing style:
Advancements in Mongol Culture
Brilliant military strategist
Khan and his armies conquered most of the Eurasia at the cost of 17 million dead, or 5% of the world’s population by the 1250s.
Mongols were tolerant to other religions
They were animist/shamanist
Walled towns or cities that did not surrender immediately and agree to supply the Mongol armies with food were attacked and their populations slaughtered; men, women, and children
Yuan Dynasty - China
Golden Horde - Russia
Il Khanate - Persia and Middle East
Changatai - Mongolia and Central Asia
Death of Ogodei Khan (khan of khans) stopped the expansion/conquest to western Europe in 1241
Ruler: Kublai Khan (1215-1294), grandson of Chinggis Khan
Before conquest of Jurchen Jin state in N.China:
Original Mongol plan: to turn north China into pasturage for the Mongols’ herds
Jurchen Jin state convinced Ogodei not to do this; rather, turn it into agricultural productivity
Stable economy because of Chinese econ. practices
Agricultural output of N. China + advanced iron technology + skilled labor force of ironworkers = continued expansion of Mongol empire
Use of already established practices facilitated Mongol takeover of power
Inside the government and time during rule:
New capital: Beijing
Chinese natives believed Mongol rule was harsh, hostile, foreign and they resented it
Many scholars did not like Mongol rule
some served but others left the administration
weakened administration and political power
Civil service exams stayed in place
favored Mongols, Turkic Uighurs, and non-Chinese people
discriminated against Hans and other Chinese people
Mongols didn’t become Chinese
never learned the language only discriminated against them
Yuan China connected overland route through the Mongol Empire with the oceanic routes through the South China Sea/ Indian Ocean
Fall out
1350s: Chinese native led rebellions against Mongols
Reasons why Mongols fell:
weak authority and control
intense factionalism among Mongols
epidemics of plague
peasant rebellions
1368: Mongol Empire falls and they return to the steppe
1238: Mongols appear in the southern Russian steppe and cease Russian princes power
Mongols settled down on the Hungarian plain; where their administration was established
1380: princes of Muscovy (Moscow) assumed leadership of the emerging Russian state
Ivan the Great pushed Mongols out of Russia
Nomadic Pastoralism Gender Roles
Women’s role:
drove ox or camel wagons
skilled archers
tended animals
able to participate in battle
more prestige than East/South Asian counterparts
Men’s role:
warriors
tended animals
Shamanism: religious specialists who communicated with animist forces in the natural world; along with animist spirits, Mongols believes in the Sky God.
After conquering settled regions, many Mongols converted to Islam or Buddhism
After Chinggis’ killing spree, Mongol armies were peaceful and granted religious freedom
The empire guaranteed the safety of merchants and travelers on the SIlk Roads, increasing trade and communication between Europe and Asia
Mongols taxed the roads
Established a passport system called ‘paiza’
Ease of travel paved the way for the spread of the Black Death in 1340s
said to have originated in China
Period after the fall of Rome and the Renaissance
Christian monasteries preserved art, culture, the faith, and learning through scribes
After the Roman Empire fell, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) maintained defense of Europe and Christianity long after Western Europe was overrun by pagan “barbarians”
Hagia Sophia: huge, very important Christian church; later became Islamic mosque
Religion: Eastern Orthodox Christianity
Capital: Constantinople
dominated by Greek language and culture
used Greco-Roman, Celtic, and Germanic culture/ideas
Although many things changed, inhabitants referred to themselves as Romans and the empire remained called the Roman Empire
1200: Empire begins to weaken
Constantine XI: last Byzantine emperor
1453: Muslim Ottoman Turks take over
used canons to tear down walls surrounding Constantinople
violence broke out after Turkic take over and the city was destructed
Mehmed II: Turkic emperor, age 19
Constantinople became Muslim and the capital of the Ottoman Empire
Europe experiences an increase in trade
Pooling investments for risky ventures: business practices from the Muslim world
Paper letters of credit and checks: East Asian and Muslim financial practices
Usury: charging of interest
Christian church prohibited this
Jews lended money to Christians and people who needed ready cash
Chivalry: honor code that was followed by nobility estate
Unwritten code based on faith, piety, and order
Miles Christi; soldiers of Christ
young men who became knights
knights took a vow to protect innocent, serve his lord, and vanquish the enemies of Christianity
he was not expected to enjoy material wealth , or power for its own sake
Troubadours and aristocratic women diffused the chivalry code
Women patronized, supported, and encouraged the artists
women wanted to emulate Virgin Mary
1200s-1300s: Fairs of Champagne were established
lasted 2-3 weeks
linked all of Europe
traded goods: dyed wool, spices, and leather goods
helped revived economy of Medieval Europe
land-based trade
The Hanse, or Hanseatic League: German maritime trading alliance
united London, northern Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavic Poland, and the Baltics
traded: low value bulk goods (lumber, fish, wool, wine)
water-based trade
Begins when Constantine converts and establishes Christianity as state religion
Beginnings
Unofficially founded in Dec. 25, 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, the ruler of most of central and western Europe, as emperor of the Romans
Empire was neither holy, nor roman, nor an empire
never achieved political unity
The creation of the empire was an attempt at creating a centralized political organization in Western Europe after the fall of Ancient Rome
Empire had tension with the Pope, and had difficulty in maintaining order over dozens of principalities
Though influential, the empire never threatened or scared the independence of dukedoms/kingdoms into submission
1400s: the Hansburg family of Austria dominated elections for emperor, won, and maintained the role within the family for many years
Access to important trade routes in Western Europe was extremely difficult
Population growth:
moderate climate facilitated agricultural expansion
Practices were feudalism and manorialism:
Feudalism: military service in exchange for land
Manorialism: the organization of large estates (manors) into economically self sufficient units
c. 1000s: Europe began to crystallize into systems of competing states with different cultures, languages, and monarchs
Royal courts, fledging bureaucracies, parliament, and professional administrators were established.
Rulers were weaker than Asian counterparts; had to compete against neighbor kingdoms and the church
Europeans valued educations and wanted to have many scholars/bureaucrats
Europeans first utilized gunpower in canons
1500s: they had the most advanced arsenal worldwide
Urban-based merchants in Europe grew wealthy because of lack of government control over trade
European govs. allowed cities to act as independent city-states but had to pay taxes
Pope; bishop of Rome
Cardinals; elects/advises the Pope
Bishops; supervise priests
Priests
Catholics
Countries are divided into regions called dioceses that had an archbishops as leader
They were active in urban professions like: weaving, brewing, milling grain, midwifery, small-scale retailing, laundering, spinning, prostitution.
Later on, women were restricted/banned from working in many trades by the 15th century
Converting to nuns would allow women to gain some level of education
mostly aristocratic women converted
1300s: the rights of nuns became restricted and men saw them as intellectually inferior
Men who devoted their lives to religion were called monks.
Monks lived in monasteries
Women who devoted their lives to religion were called nuns
Nuns lived in convents
Together they made up the clergy
Monasteries controlled the scriptures; most monks were scribes
Community services of the clergy:
Ran hospitals and orphanages
Welcomed travelers, giving them food and a night’s lodging (people going on pilgrimages)
Taught school
Were missionaries
Priests lived among villagers and took care of local churches
Priests collect the tide: 10% tax of income, and send it to Rome
The church was a religious power, but also a worldly power
Rulers provided protection to the papacy and the Pope provided religious legitimacy for the ruler
made laws and set up courts to enforce them
could crown kings (Charlemagne)
could send men to war (Crusades)
collected taxes and accepted fiefs, in exchange for religious services
pope was a landlord and controlled territory called the Papal States in central Italy
pope has its own army
catholic church grew wealthy which gave educational initiatives
Books were copied onto parchment paper-like material made from sheepskin
Monks wrote books of prayer and poetry and also copied old Greek/Roman texts
Beautifully decorated books were called illuminated manuscripts
The patron saint of Europe; created the concept of the monastic style
Before him, monks lived an ascetic life
He felt their lives needed to be more purposeful
His Rules:
8 hours of prayer
8 hours of sleep
8 hours of manual labor, charity, or reading scriptures
Location: Western South America (Peru)
Capital: Cusco
Inca governing styles
The Inca conquered neighboring tribes but did not remove
their leadership.
Tribal leaders took an oath of loyalty to the Inca, sent their children to Cusco as hostages, and ruled their own territories in the name of the Inca.
Advanced Agriculture
Main crop: potatoes
Used terraces to farm the vertical slopes of the Andes
Practiced terrace farming and used the quipu for record-keeping.
Food was stored incase of a shortage
Ayllus: clans
Had an efficient road system
Constructed 25,000 miles of roads through the Andes
Mita labor system built and maintained the roads
Government use only and to move armies quickly around the empire.
Polytheistic religion who preformed rituals
Impressive stone architecture (Machu Picchu)
Incans were renowned for their construction techniques with
stone.
Had a highly organized centralized government, and deeply focused on the infrastructure and order of their empire
Location: Mexico
Advanced Agriculture
Performed Human Sacrifice based rituals
Mainly for their Sun god
Mainly people they captured at war
Empire was war-driven, expanding through conquest
They worshipped many gods, especially sun and war gods
