Chapter 2 - Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

Organization of Human Body

Organization of Human Body

Demonstrate understanding of body's structure and functions.

Anatomy

Study of body's structure, including gross and microscopic anatomy.

Physiology

Study of body's functions, including neurophysiology and cardiovascular physiology.

Gross Anatomy

Study of larger body structures.

Microscopic Anatomy

Study of smaller body structures.

Regional Anatomy

Study of body structures by regions.

Systemic Anatomy

Study of body structures by systems.

Histology

Study of tissues at a microscopic level.

Cytology

Study of structure and function of cells.

Functional MRI

Imaging technique showing brain function.

Ultrasound Imaging

Imaging technique for fetal brain.

X-rays

Imaging for hard structures like bone.

CT Scans

Imaging for soft tissues.

Neurophysiology

Study of nervous system function.

Cardiovascular Physiology

Study of heart and blood circulation function.

Renal Physiology

Study of kidney function.

Pathology

Study of changes associated with disease.

Endocrinology

Study of endocrine system.

Cardiology

Study of the heart.

Neurology

Study of the nervous system.

Homeostasis

Body's ability to maintain internal stability.

Structure and Function Relationship

Interdependence where structure determines function.

Phosphorylation

Process changing protein shape by adding phosphate group.

Branching Structures

Increase surface area for absorption and exchange.

Evolution

Caused by random changes in gene expression from generation to generation, leading to variation among a species.

Anatomical variation

Occurs more frequently than represented in most texts and does not affect function. For example, variations in the number of pulmonary veins and lumbar vertebrae among individuals.

Physiological variation

More diverse and widespread than anatomical variation, affecting the function of an organ, organ system, or organism. Can be based on age or gender.

Flow

The movement of a substance or molecule dependent on gradients such as electrical, pressure, and concentration gradients. Flow is directly proportional to the size of the gradient and inversely proportional to resistance.

Anatomy of Flow

Gradients determine the direction of flow, with molecules flowing down their concentration gradients and pressure gradients moving substances through the body.

Feedback Loops

Methods of control for many variables in the human body, primarily through negative feedback where the body's response is to decrease the original stimulus. Positive feedback occurs when the original stimulus is enhanced.

Control of Blood Sugar Levels

Negative feedback loop involving the release of glucagon from the pancreas to increase blood sugar levels when levels decrease.

Maintaining Blood Sugar Levels Near a Setpoint

Physiological processes help regulate blood sugar levels near a setpoint, with insulin secreted to lower levels after eating and glucagon secreted to increase levels during fasting.

Positive Feedback Loop Involved in Childbirth

Childbirth involves a positive feedback loop where stretching of the cervix leads to the release of oxytocin, strengthening contractions of the uterus.

Evolutionary changes

Changes in the human body such as the shape of the pelvis, oppositional thumbs, and branching airways, offering increased chances of survival through bipedal movement, grasping objects, and increased gas exchange surface area.

Geography in evolutionary changes

Geography plays a role in evolutionary changes.

Evolutionary Changes

Changes in response to environmental conditions due to geography.

Feedback Loop Component

Part directly making changes to maintain homeostasis.

Levels of Organization

Various organizational levels in the human body.

Organ Systems

Systems in the human body like cardiovascular and nervous.

Tissue Structure

Structure with multiple tissue types performing a specific function.

Acid-Base Balance System

System responsible for maintaining balance and gas exchange.

Anatomical Position

Upright stance with specific limb and body positions.

Anterior and Posterior Terms

Terms describing front and back regions of the body.

Directional Terms

Terms indicating body position like superior and inferior.

Sections and Planes

Imaginary divisions for investigating internal anatomy.

Planes and sections

Illustrate structures from different perspectives

Internal compartments

Organize the body's internal space, separated by membranes

Posterior body cavity

Contains cranial and spinal cavities

Anterior body cavity

Consists of thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Cranial cavity

Houses the brain within the posterior body cavity

Thoracic cavity

Part of the anterior body cavity containing the lungs and heart

Abdominopelvic cavity

Includes abdominal and pelvic cavities with organs like stomach and bladder

Serous membranes

Tissue sheets covering organs, reducing friction with two layers and fluid

X-Rays

Medical imaging for teeth and bone internal view

Computed Tomography

Uses x-rays and computers for detailed internal structure visualization

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Provides precise details using emitted radio signals from internal structures

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Detects metabolic activity using radiation, useful in diagnosing diseases

Ultrasonography

Real-time internal anatomy imaging using sound waves, ideal for pregnancy