Act Utilitarianism

What is a teleological theory?

A theory that is focused on the consequences; the ends justify the means (if consequences are good then the means can be morally suspect)

What is a deontological theory?

A theory that focuses on moral rules about acts we can or cannot do

What is utilitarianism?

A teleological ethical theory based on empirical evidence

What are the 2 types of utilitarianism?

Rule + act

What kind of theory is utilitarianism?

Consequentialist (defines good/bad actions depending on the consequences one course of action will lead to) + relativist

What does utilitarians believe humans act out of?

- We seek out our own happiness (egoist view)

- We are also benevolent by nature -> take into account the happiness of those affected by our actions (Singer - "equal consideration of interests") -> principle of utility

How are actions judged?

In terms of usefulness (how much does it add to the greatest good for the greatest number?) + not intrinsically

What does intrinsic mean?

Value that is a non-relational characteristic of an object (it is valued because it exists), innately

What is the principle of utility?

The rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its utility which is the amount of pleasure or happiness caused by the action

Who came up with the principle of utility?

Jeremy Bentham

What is the principle of utility also known as?

The greatest happiness principle (an action is good if it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number)

What are the 6 ideas associated with the principle of utility? (ie the principle of utility is...)

- Useful -> principle of usefulness to bring about good consequences

- Focused on pleasure and happiness

- Quantitative -> what is the quantity of pleasure produced

- Egalitarian -> greatest good for the greatest number

- Relativist -> does not depend on absolute laws

What are the issues with utility?

- Is the greatest happiness the most important thing?

- How do you measure that outcome?

- Is the number of people more important than who the people are or the type of happiness?

- What about virtue and justice?

What is act utilitarianism based on?

Actions (which act in this particular situation creates the most amount of happiness)

What are the concepts of act utilitarianism?

- Principle of utility

- Motivation

- The hedonic calculus

Who came up with act utilitarianism?

Jeremy Bentham

Is act utilitarianism qualitative or quantitative?

Quantitative

What is hedonism?

An ethical theory that regards pleasure + happiness as the most beneficial outcome of an action

What did Rachels say about hedonism?

"Hedonism misunderstands the nature of happiness. Happiness is not something that is recognised as good and sought for its own sake with other things appreciated only as a means of bringing it about. Instead, happiness is a response we have to the attainment of things that we recognise as good"

What did Bentham believe is the motivation for human beings?

Pleasure is the only good + pain is the only evil (he was a hedonist) and it is a human instinct to want to avoid pain (e.g reflex to pull hand away from hot object) -> we are controlled by seeking pleasure + avoiding pain

When did Bentham grow up?

- England when society had stratified into different classes

- The industrial Revolution was just beginning

- No child labour laws + exploitation of children was common

What did Bentham say to explain that pleasure and pain dictate our actions?

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of 2 sovereign masters, pain and pleasure"

"It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as determine what we shall do"

What is the hedonic calculus?

Provides a way of analysing + measuring the pain + pleasure of different consequences

What is measured using the hedonic calculus?

- Intensity

- Duration

- Certainty/uncertainty

- Closeness/remoteness

- The chance it has of being followed by sensations of the same kind

- The purity

- The extent (the number affected)

What is done with the calculation?

The balance of this calculation is noted + compared with the balance of pain + pleasure created by the other choices available

What did Bentham say when summing up the hedonic calculus?

"Sum up all the values of all the pleasures on the one side, and those of all the pains on the other"

What are the strengths of act utilitarianism?

- Based on a simple principle (Louis Pojman - "It is simple in that there is only one rule to apply") -> it is flexible + applicable to any situation

- It is calculated mathematically -> in line with the scientific dreams of the Age of Reason

- Rational and doesn't rely on a belief in a supernatural being/superstitions

- It's democratic -> promotes general happiness instead of individual pursuits

- Moral decisions consider minority groups who were previously persecuted -> wrong to persecutes homosexuals because it brings no suffering to other people (Bentham)

Who disagreed with Bentham's act utilitarianism and why?

J.S Mill -> it doesn't consider the different types of pain + pleasure + can justify sadistic torture

What are the problems with act utilitarianism?

- Excuses sadistic torture -> has the potential to justify virtually any act producing extreme results

- It is impractical to suggest we should measure each and every moral choice

- Problems with predicting consequences -> can't predict far reaching consequences so a theory based on consequentialism is unhelpful (Hume - "the effects of an action form part of a chain that stretches into a indefinite future")

- The 3 mile island effect -> impossible to calculate utility as the true consequences of an action are inherently unknowable (Daniel Dennett)

- Peter Vardy -> "utilitarianism relies strictly on its predictive value" + his example of saving a pregnant woman or old man in car accident (In "The Puzzle of Ethics")

- Integrity objection -> doesn't consider the inherent integrity of the action itself and the morals the individual follows (suggests they should be abandoned in order to fulfil the greatest happiness principle) (Bernard Williams) (this is a problem with rule as well)

- If 2 acts have the same result but one was a lie, which one is best to choose -> cannot justify lies + atrocities through utilitarianism (Ross)