Chapter 1: Science, Society & Research Methods Related to CJ and Criminology

CONTENT ANALYSIS

a research method for systematically analyzing and making inferences from text and other media

CRIME MAPPING

the process of using a geographic information system to conduct a special analysis of crime data and other police related issues 

CRITICAL THEORY

focuses on examining structures, patterns, and meanings but rests on the premise that power differences have shaped these structures and patterns

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

research in which social phenomena are defined and described

EVALUATION RESEARCH

research about social programs and interventions

EXPLANATORY RESEARCH

research that seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

research in which social phenomena are investigated without prior expectations in order to decline

FEMINIST RESEARCH

research with a focus on women’s lives that often include an orientation to personal experience, subjective orientations, the researcher’s standpoints, and emotion

EPISTEMOLOGY

a branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge is gained or acquired

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

an approach in which the researcher randomly assigns individuals to two or more groups in a way that equates the characteristics of individuals in the groups, except for variation in the groups’ exposure to the independent variable

ILLOGICAL REASONING

when someone prematurely jumps to conclusions or argues on the basis of invalid assumptions

INACCURATE OBSERVATION

observations based on faulty perceptions of empirical reality

INTENSIVE INTERVIEWING 

A qualitative method that involves open-ended, relatively unstructured questioning in which the interviewer seeks in-depth information on the interviewee’s feelings, experiences, and perception

INTERPRETIVISM

the belief that reality is socially constructed and that the goal of social scientists is to understand what meanings people give to that reality, Max Weber termed the goal of interpretivist research verstehen (understandings)

INTERSUBJECTIVE AGREEMENT

agreement between scientists about the nature of reality; often upheld as a more reasonable goal for science that certainy about objective reality

MIXED METHODS

combining both quantitative and qualitative methods to study one research question

TRIANGULATION

the use of multiple methods to study one research question; also used to mean the use of two or more different measures of the same variable

OVERGENERALIZATION

Occurs when we unjustifiably conclude that what is true for some cases is true for all cases 

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

A qualitative method for gathering data that involves developing a sustained relationship with people while they go about their normal activities

PEER REVIEW

A process in which a journal editor sends a submitted article to two or three experts who judge whether the paper should be accepted, revised and resubmitted, or rejected; the experts also provide comments to explain their decision and guide any revisions

PHRENOLOGY

A now-defunct field of study, once considered a science in the 19th century, which held that bumps and fissures of the skull determined the character and personality of a person

POSITIVISM

the belief that there is a reality that exists suite apart from our own perception of it, although our knowledge of this reality may never be complete

POSTPOSITIVISM

the belief that there is an empirical reality but that our understanding of it is limited by its complexity and by the biases and other limitations of researchers

PSEUDOSCIENCE

dubious claims that are touted as “scientifically proven”; however, the evidence is not based on the principles of the scientific method

QUALITATIVE METHODS

methods such as participant observation, intensive interviewing, and focus groups that are designed to capture social life as participants experience it rather than in categories predetermined by the researcher. Data that are treated as qualitaitve are mostly written or spoken words or observations that do not have a direct numerical interpretation

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

methods such as surveys and experiments that record variation in social life in terms of categories that vary in amount. Data that are treated as quantitative are either numbers or attributes that can be ordered in terms of magnitude

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

the reluctance to change our ideas in light of new information

SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS

analysis of data collected by someone other than the researcher or the researcher’s assistant

SELECTIVE OBSERVATION

choosing to look only at things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs

SCIENCE/SOCIAL SCIENCE

A set of logical, systematic, documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations

SURVEYS

a popular and versatile research instrument using a question format; surveys can be self-administered or read by an interviewer

TRANSPARENT

an important feature of the scientific method that requires procedures, methods, and data analyses of any study to be presented clearly for the purposes of replication