Learning & Cognition Exam #3

3 stages of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

Encoding

• putting information into the memory system

• making meaning out of information

• taking in information and putting it into a format that our brain can store

• representation but not reality

Storage

• retaining information over time

• encoding the sounds and holding onto it

• the process of maintaining encoded information over time for future use 

Retrieval

• accessing stored information for use

• pulling it out

• recognize information

Types of processing

shallow, deep, automatic

Automatic Processing

• ex: hand in fire, hand hitting hot pan

• Didn’t intentionally learn

Shallow Processing

superficial processing

Deep Processing

meaning, context, intentional

Time and Personal Relevance

• time passing after encoding info effects memory (decay, forgetting, spacing)

• how much it personally relates to you/how meaningful it is affects your memory (more motivated/meaningful → good for memory)

Amnesia

forgetting

Dimentia

forgetting due to age/mental decline in memory

Sensory memory

• simplest to understand

• memory for sensory input/information

• stimulus goes into the 5 senses (touch, smell, sight, hearing, taste)

• stored briefly in its original sensory form for a very short amount of time

• requires attention to move into working memory

• remembering something that’s already happened

3 systems of memory

sensory memory, working memory, long term memory

Short Term Memory

• information from sensory memory is briefly stored

• not really meant to last (maybe seconds, possible up to a couple of minutes but that’s it)

• often moves information into long-term memory

• has a limited capacity (how much & how long)

Characteristics of Short Term Memory

limited capacity, limited duration, susceptible to decay, susceptible to interference

Limited Capacity (working memory)

7 ± 2 chunks/bits of information

Chunking

• chunk= any meaningful unit

• grouping bits of information together to allow for better memory

• the more chunks that can be made, the more that can be used

• ex: grouping items in a grocery list together to remember them better or remembering a phone number as three separate groups of numbers instead of 9 separate digits 

Limited duration (short term)

some say 20 seconds, others say longer (2 minutes)

Susceptible to decay

over time, it is forgotten in your short term memory

Susceptible to interference

• disrupting the process

• 2 kinds: proactive & retroactive interference

Proactive interference

this is when older information that you have learned or experiences you have interferes with the new information that you are learning and trying to encode

Retroactive interference

this is when new information you are learning currently gets in the way of old information that you have already learned in the past

Serial position effects

your short term memory is flawed, so you are more likely to remember the things at the beginning of the list (primacy) or at the end of the list (recency)

Primacy (Serial Position Effect)

better memory for items at the beginning of a list

Recency (Serial Position Effect)

better memory for items at the end of a list

Serial Position Curve

shows recall at the beginning is really high, but the further we go along, the less likely we remember and then is high at the end again

Working Memory Model (WM)

• short term memory is more than a simple storage system

• working memory is a temporary storage unit and can process and manipulate information via controlled attention

Baddeley and Hitch WM Model

Phonological Loop (WM Model)

• sounds like “phonic” which sounds like language

• this is a part of your working memory

• the speech and sound related component is responsible for…phonological storage (holding onto sounds) and articulatory rehearsal

Articulatory Rehearsal (Phonological loop)

mental or cognitive rehearsal of auditory information

How does the phonological loop work?

word length effect, articulatory suppression effect, phonological similarity

Word length effect (Phonological loop)

more information means you have to work harder and you’re ability to work harder is inhibited by more information

Articulatory suppression effect (Phonological loop)

distracting, can’t multi-task, can only spotlight attention on 1 thing at a time

Phonological Similarity

words look and sound similar which makes them harder to stand out

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

• mental representation of visual information

• knowing what’s coming 

• information can be manipulated

• maps

Assessing Memory (the process) (CC Video)

• recall, recognition, re-learning

3 R’s of memory

Recall, recognition, re-learning

Recall (3 R’s of memory)

• how you reach back in your mind and bring up information

• ex: fill in the blank

Recognition (3 R’s of memory)

• only needing to identify old information when presented with it

• ex: multiple choice

Re-learning (the 3’s of memory)

refreshing or reinforcing old information

Long-term memory (CC video)

• capacity= unlimited when short-term memory is rehearsed or deemed important

• implicit, explicit, procedural, episodic memory

• emotional processing

• memory “hacks”

• ways to improve learning

Implicit memory

things we are not aware of or have to concentrate on (skills and habits)

Explicit memory

things we are conscious of (facts and events)

Procedural memory

• responsible for knowing how to perform actions and skills (muscle memory= unconscious effort)

• ex: riding a bike, tying shoes

Episodic memory

• stores information about personal experiences and specific events

• includes context, such as the time and place of an event, as well as associated emotions

• Hippocampus involved

Emotional processing

emotions shape not only what we remember but also how vividly and accurately we recall events

Memory “hacks”

• chunking

• mnemonics

Mnemonics

• memory aids that use associations, acronyms, or imagery to help retain information

• Ex: ROYGBIV

Other ways to improve learning (from the handout)

Memory pathway

Language acquisition

the process by which humans acquire the ability to perceive, produce, and use words to understand and communicate

Perceptive (Language acquisition)

learning language through the senses, process, understand

Expressive (Language acquisition)

using words to communicate/communicating what you need

3 approaches to language acquisition

behaviorist, chomsky, and universal grammar

Behaviorist approach

• environmental influence, imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning

• children learn words and grammar primarily by mimicking speech they hear and receiving positive feedback (correct words are positively reinforced)

• reinforcement and punishment of words repeated leads to meaning being assigned to words and therefore language is learned

• critiques of this approach say that it does not explain the rapid pace of language acquisition and does not count for creation of novel sentences

Chomsky approach

• Noam Chomsky

• a critic of Skinner and behaviorism 

• Nativist

• theory emphasizes role of innate structures and mechanisms of the human brain 

• key points in his theory included the language acquisition device (LAD), universal grammar, poverty of stimulus, critical period

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) (Chomsky)

humans have an inborn biological capacity for language which predisposes them to acquire it 

Universal grammar (Chomsky)

all human languages share a deep structure rooted in a set of grammatical rules and categories

Poverty of stimulus (Chomsky)

linguistic input is often insufficient for behaviorist theory to be effective, that points to an innate cognitive structure

Critical period (Chomsky)

there is a period of time in which the brain is particularly receptive to linguistic input- first language it is very young

Universal grammar

• innate, biological, grammatical categories, such as a noun category, verb category, that facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing

• ex: children know instinctively that a noun like “boy” goes with a verb “run” to make “boy runs”

Childhood language acquisition

high amplitude sucking, babbling, child directed speech, wug test, critical period, language deprivation, adult language acquisition

High Amplitude Sucking

babies suck on pacifiers when hearing sounds that interest them

Babbling

long repetitive sequences of nonsense syllables

Child directed speech

the way adults talk to babies that varies across cultures

Wug test

• applying rules when it’s not needed

• applying rules for a new word even if they haven’t heard it before

Critical period (childhood language acquisition)

a period of time where children’s ability for language learning is high; also a period where children can learn as many languages as they are exposed to 

Holophrastic speech

• kids getting better at language so they will use 1-2 words to convey an entire idea

• an important step in intentional language

• ex: “i need water” → “water”

Overgeneralizations

• kids apply a rule when it’s not really correct but it shows advancement in language

• ex: instead of saying “I went,” they say “I goed”

• this is usually self corrected

• shows risk and confidence in kids

• don’t correct it too early on or it will discourage kids to use language

Language Deprivation

• children are not exposed to a language accessible to them during developmental years 

• ex: deaf babies who are not taught sign language

• this is also a period where children can learn as many languages as they are exposed to

Adult language acquisition

• language transfer- when you use language you already know to learn a new one

• things that aid in this are motivation and fits with identity and goals

Attention

mental process of concentrating effort on a stimulus or mental event

Input attention

basic processes of getting sensory information into the cognitive system

Attention is viewed as…

• alertness or arousal (ex: smelling smoke, hearing alarm)

• an orienting reflex or response (ex: new culture)

• spotlight/search mechanism (ex: focusing on 1 thing, like taking an exam)

Attention as alertness/arousal

• alertness and arousal are necessary, adaptive states of the nervous system

• vigilance (sustained attention)

Vigilance

• sustained attention

• maintenance of attention over long periods of time

• decline in attention takes about 20-35 mins

• influenced by neurological and physiological states (temperature, arousal, drugs)

• solution: self regulation

Attention as orienting/capture

• orienting reflex- reflexive redirection of attention toward an unexpected stimulus

• driven by: motivationally significant stimuli (desserts, attractive individuals, predators, toxic substances) and novel stimuli

• Attentional capture

  • redirection of attention to stimuli based on physical characteristics 

  • susceptible to habituation 

  • ex: husband being “used to” how pretty his wife is when someone else comments how pretty she is 

Attention as a spotlight (spotlight attention)

• a mental attention- focusing mechanism that prepares you to encode stimulus information 

• “shines a spotlight” to highlight necessary information

Posner’s Spatial Cuing Task

• Posner, Nissen, & Ogden (1978)

• Participants focused on a cross

• Participants saw an arrow pointing the direction of the coming target

• 80% trials were “valid” 20% were “invalid”

• Participants asked to indicate the side to which the arrow pointed

• If you have visual cues, you can pay attention to certain aspects

Controlled/Selective Attention

• choosing one stimulus to focus on while choosing not to attend to other stimuli

Filtering/selecting

mental process of eliminating distractions

Stroop Test

• cognitive testing 

• noticing color of the word that doesn’t say the actual color (ex: the word black being written in red ink)

• made to see if you can control your attention

• especially helpful in things like traumatic brain injury recovery