AP Psych Unit 3 Vocab Set #1

Chronological Development

the number of years and months since birth

Lifespan Development

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan

Stability vs. Change

the question of whether early personality traits persist through life, or if we become different people as we age

Nature vs. Nurture

the controversy over the contributions that genes versus experiences make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Continuous Development

the idea that changes with age occur gradually in small increments

Discontinuous Development (Stages)

the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts

Teratogens

agents that damage the process of development (e.g., drugs, viruses)

Fine Motor Coordination

activities or skills that require coordination of small muscles to control precise movements, particularly in the hands and face (e.g., writing, drawing, cutting)

Gross Motor Coordination

activities or skills that use large muscles to move your bottom or limbs and control posture to maintain balance (e.g., waving, walking, hopping, running)

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior; relatively NOT influenced by experience

Reflexes

simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli (e.g., knee-jerk response)

Rooting Reflex

a baby’s tendency to, when touched on the cheek, turn towards the touch, open their mouth, and search for a nipple

Visual Cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Critical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Sensitive Period

a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments (the absence does NOT always produce irreversible consequences)

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Growth Spurt

the relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty; each body part increases in size on a schedule

Puberty

the period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible (e.g., ovaries, testes)

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual characteristics (ex. female → breasts and hips, male → voice and body hair)

Menarche

a woman’s first menstrual period

Spermarche

a body’s first ejaculation

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Schemas

concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accomodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information, or creating new ones

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development)

from birth to 2 years → infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Object Permeance

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (doesn’t exist in the Sensorimotor Stage)

Preoperational Stage (Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development)

from about 2 to 7 years → a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Mental Symbols

a skill in which a child is able to mentally represent an object that is not present and creates a dependence on perception in problem solving (develops in the Preoperational Stage)

Conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (begins to develop during the Preoperational Stage)

Reversibiity

the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point

Animism

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action (exists in young children)

Theory of Mind

an awareness that other peoples’ behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one’s own (begin to develop in children in the Preoperational Stage)

Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development)

from 7 to 11 years → children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events (abstract and hypothetical thinking are still difficult)

Systematic Thinking

using rational methods of solving problems

Formal Operational Stage (Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development)

from 12 years to adulthood → people begin to think logically about abstract concepts, and are able to think abstractly and hypothetically

Abstract Thinking

capacity to understand hypothetical concepts or intangible ideas

Hypothetical Thinking

thinking that is based on what is possible and the future, not just what is already real

Scaffolding

support of learning that allows students to complete tasks they are not able to complete independently

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky’s Theory)

the range between children’s present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction

Crystallized Intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tend to increase with age

Fluid Intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, which tends to decrease during late adulthood

Dementia

a slow decline in mental abilities (e.g., memory, thinking, judgment) that is often accompanied by personality changes (Alzheimer’s is the most common)

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes

the smallest units of meaning in a language

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

Grammar

a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce

Syntax

the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language

Cooing

pleasant vowel-like noises made by infants (begins at around 2 months)

Babbling

stage of language development where an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds (begins at about 4 months)

One-Word Stage

the stage in speech development where a child speaks mostly in single words (1 to 2 years)

Telegraphic Speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs

Overgeneralization of Language Rules

applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation (ex. “I runned,” “he hitted,” “you buyed”)

Ecological Systems Theory

views a person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment

Microsystem (Bioecological Model)

the people and objects in an individual’s immediate environment

Mesosystem (Bioecological Model)

the interconnections among immediate/microsystem settings

Exosystem (Bioecological Model)

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but still influence development

Macrosystem (Bioecological Model)

the larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded

Chronosystem (Bioecological Model)

historical changes that influence the other systems

Authoritarian Parenting

a style of parenting where the parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

Authoritative Parenting

a style of parenting characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

Permissive Parenting

a parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behavior

Attachment Styles

the expectations people develop about relationships with others based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants

Secure Attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

Insecure Attachment

attachment marked by anxiety or ambivalence

Avoidant Attachment

child is unresponsive to their parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if they leave

Anxious Attachment

children have ambivalent reactions to parents; they may show extreme stress when parents leave, but resist being comforted by them upon return

Disorganized Attachment

children show no clear pattern of behavior in response to a caregiver’s absence or presence, instead showing a mix of different behaviors (avoidance, frozen, confusion, rocking); may be a sign of abuse

Temperament

basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely from genetic origin

Separation Anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

Parallel Play

action in which children play with similar toys and in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other

Pretend Play

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Egocentrism

a child’s difficulty in taking into account another person’s point of view (in Piaget’s Theory)

Imaginary Audience

adolescents’ belief that they are the focus of everyone else’s attention and concern

Personal Fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

Social Clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events (e.g., marriage, parenthood, retirement)

Emerging Adulthood

a period from about age 18 to mid-twenties when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development (Erikson’s Model)

the theory that in one’s lifetime, they go through 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality

Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson’s Model)

from birth to about 18 months → infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Erikson’s Model)

toddlers (2nd stage) → they must exercise some independence or will be ashamed and uncertain of their abilities

Initiative vs. Guilt (Erikson’s Model)

preschoolers (3rd stage) → they must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves

Industry vs. Inferiority (Erikson’s Model)

children (4th stage) → they must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Erikson’s Model)

adolescents (5th stage) → they must develop a sense of who they are or suffer lack of direction

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Erikson’s Model)

young adults (6th stage) → they must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson’s Model)

middle-age adults (7th stage) → they must discover a sense of contributing to the world or they may feel a lack of purpose

Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson’s Model)

elders (8th stage) → when reflecting at the end of their life, they must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience feeling like they wasted their life

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

stressful or traumatic experiences (e.g., abuse, neglect, witnessing domestic abuse, growing up with substance abuse or crime)

Achievement

the final stage of identity development in which one has explored their options and uses that experience to commit to an identity

Diffusion

a stage in identity development in which one is not committed to a particular identity but isn’t open to exploring options

Foreclosure

a stage in identity development in which one is committed to an identity without having explored their options

Moratorium

a stage in identity development in which one is not committed to a particular identity and is openly exploring options

Racial/Ethnic Identity

the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership

Sexual Orientation

an attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual) or to the other sex (heterosexual)

Religious Identity

an aspect of identity defined by one’s spiritual beliefs

Occupational Identity

subjective sense of capacity and effectiveness for participation in a chosen task or career

Familial Identity

the sense of self as connected to family and others

Possible Selves

representations of what we could become, what we want to become, and what we are afraid of becoming