psychology - psychopathology

what does abnormal mean

differant from what is usual

What is deviation from social norms?

It is when behavior does not fit what is socially acceptable. Unwritten rules showing what is normal and what is deviant. is a relative concept - it varies based on different opinions for different people and cultures.

Give an example of deviation from social norms.

A person walking on a motorway.

What is a strength of the concept of deviation from social norms?

It is flexible and takes account of the context of behavior.

What is a limitation of the concept of deviation from social norms?

Norms change over time.

description of deviation from ideal mental health

If Jahoda proposed six criteria for normality, and an individual is unable to meet them, they deviate from ideal mental health.

Give an example of a statement that indicates deviation from ideal mental health.

Someone saying they are a failure.

What is a strength of Jahoda's criteria for ideal mental health?

It can give targeted intervention if behavior is considered 'abnormal.'

What is a limitation of Jahoda's criteria for ideal mental health?

The criteria are unrealistic and too strict, as most people would be considered abnormal.

What is failure to function adequately?

It refers to when individuals can't cope with everyday life and behavior, causing stress to themselves and/or those around them.

Give an example of failure to function adequately.

An example is someone with depression not being able to get out of bed.

What is a strength of the failure to function adequately approach?

It can consider how an individual feels and acknowledges their personal experience.

What is a limitation of the failure to function adequately approach?

It may focus too much on the individual and not consider how their behavior affects others, such as in the case of hoarders.

what does statistical infrequancy mean

a mathematical method to define abnormality - should be based on infrequency - if it occurs rarely = abnormal

Example of statistical infrequency

someone with IQ of below 70 or above 130 is considered abnormal

strength of statistical infrequency

intuitive - abnormality = when something doesn't occur often

limitation of statistical infrequency

False positives and negatives. Abnormal behaviour can occur frequently - 25% of the population will have a mental health issue at least once. But behaviour can also be pos - wanting high IQ

what is a phobia

an anxiety disorder which causes an irrational fear of an object/situation

name the different types of phobia

specific, situation, agoraphobia

what is a specific phobia

a person who fears a specific object or situation e.g. fear of bees

what is a social phobia

a person who fears a social situation e.g. public speaking

what is a agoraphobia

a person who fears being outside or in a public space - place where an escape might be difficult e.g. fear of clouds

what are behavioural characteristics

typical behaviours and actions of people

what does cognitive mean

typical patterns of thought, belief and perception

what are emotional characteristics of phobias

- anxiety - an unpleasant state of high arouse that makes relaxing difficult or feeling positive emotions difficult

what is behavioural characteristics of phobias

avoidance - going to a lot of effort to prevent coming into contact with the public. stimulus - panting, crying

what is cognitive characteristics of phobias

irrational beliefs - thoughts that cannot easily be explained. cognitive bias/perception. inaccurate/unrealistic. selective attention - difficulty focusing on anything

what does depression mean

a disorder characterized by low mood and low energy

name the 4 types of depression and what they are like

major depressive disorder - severe but often short term

persistent depressive disorder - long term or recurring

disruptive mood dysregulation disorder - childhood temper tantrums

premenstrual dysphoric disorder - disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation

what are emotional characteristics of depression

anger, lowered mood, lowered self esteem, loss of pleasure from activities

what are behavioural characteristics of depression

activity levels, aggression/self harm, disruption to sleep/eating behavior

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

poor concentration, absolutist thinking, dwelling on negative thoughts

what does OCD mean

an anxiety disorder with 2 main components: obsessions (reoccurring and persistent thoughts) and compulsions (urge to react - repetitive behaviors )

what are emotional characteristics of OCD

disgust or guilt, anxiety, low mood

what are behavioural charcteristics of OCD

avoidance, compulsions to relieve anxiety, repetitive behaviors

what are cognitive characteristics of OCD

obsessive thoughts, catastrophic thinking, cognitive coping strategies

what is part 1 of the 2 process model

phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning. a phobia is learnt through forming associations

you LEARN the phobia

what is part 2 of the 2 process model

phobias can be maintained through operant conditioning. phobia continues to exist as reinforced through avoidance

you KEEP the phobia

what is systemtic desensitisation

counter conditioning to unlearn the maladaptive response to a situation or object eliciting another response (relaxation)

what are the 3 points of systematic desensitisation

1. fear hierarchy

2. relaxation training

3. gradual exposure (theory of reciprocal inhibition)

what is flooding (3 points)

- Patient is taught relation techniques and these techniques are applied to the most feared situation

- either experience direct (in vivo) or indirect (in vitro) exposure

- exposed to phobia immediately rather than gradually - unable to avoid - continuous exposure - anxiety levels decrease

similarities and differances between SD and flooding

similarities - both are taught relaxation, both can be direct and indirect

differences - SD exposed to most frightening gradually, need to create fear hierarchy, more gentle. flooding - exposed to most frightening immediately, don't create hierarchy, distressing

what did ellis believe depression was caused by

irrational and faulty thoughts with an activating event

what did beck think depression is caused by

irrational negative schemas (cognitive condition)

what was becks model

the negative triad.

what was eliis' model

the ABC model - A- activating event. B- beliefs about the event, C- consequence

what does CBT involve

- initial assessment

- goal setting

- identifying negative/irrational thoughts and challenging these

- homework (behavioral activation)

in depth of what becks CBT invloves

- patient identifys negative thoughts in relation to them, the world and future using his negative triad

- patient and therapist work together to challange irrational thoughts by discussing evidence against them

- patient is encouraged to test validity of the negative thoughts and may be set homework to challenge + test negative thoughts

what is ellis' form of CBT

Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy, the ABCDE model. D- dispute E- effective

what are the 3 types of ellis' disputes

logical dispute, empirical dispute, pragmatic dispute

what are the definitions of ellis' disputes

l

what is the format for ellis' REBT

the thought

the defense the prosecution

the judges verdict

compare a compulsion and an obsession

a compulsion is something they have to do repetitively (external) and an obsession is an intense reoccurring thought (internal)

what are the 2 different types of biological explanations

neural - neurotransmitters and/or structures of brain

genetic - how parents genes are inherited

what does inherited mean

the passing of genetic information from the parent to child through genes in sperm and egg cells

what does predisposed mean

an individuals inclination to think/feel or behave in a particular way based on previous experiences

What is the diathesis-stress model?

a psychological theory that attempts to explain a disorder as the result of an interaction between a predispositional vulnerability and a stress caused by life experiences. - after an environmental affect

what have family studies about OCD identified

an elevated risk of OCD in first degree relatives is 23% and twin studies are around 53-83% showing that genetics have an aspect but not fully

how is the genetic explanation for OCD reductionist

as it ignores the role of environmental factors e.g. in family's its likely for children to observe compulsive behaviors of parents - not a strong support for genetic explanations for OCD

what is a candidate gene and what does it involve

a number of candidate genes have been implicated as a possible cause of OCD including SERT - low serotonin levels and COMT - high dopamine levels

what does polygenic mean

- OCD not caused by one single gene

- combination of a number of genetic variations increase vulnerability

- Taylor (2013) found that there was up to 230 genes

What does aetiologically heterogeneous mean?

- origins of OCD vary from one person to another

- different groups of genes may cause different types of OCD

what are neural explanations

abnormalities in neurotransmitters and/or structures of brain may result in OCD

what are the neurotransmitters involved and what happens

serotonin and dopamine

too little serotonin cause obsessive repetitive thoughts so increased levels decrease OCD symptoms and too much dopamine can result in more repetitive behaviors. the reuptake in the synapse occurs too quickly meaning that there is little serotonin in the receptor site

what are the brain structures involved and what happens

neural structures and the worry circuit

orbito-frontal ----- caudate nucleus -------- thalamus cortex (worry starts) I (receives worry)

removes worry X

but instead of the caudate nucleus removing the worry the thalamus receives it and sends it back to the orbito-frontal cortex causing reoccurring intrusive thoughts

what happens in the worry circuit

the OFC is more active - high 'worry signals' - caudate nucleus fails to suppress signals reducing ability to control inner impulses

what does drug therapy refer to and example

use of medication to treat conditions e.g. SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are one type of anti depressant drug which is used to treat OCD

what is the process of antidepressants use in OCD

- serotonin is released from the presynaptic cell into the synapse

- SSRIs increase the level of serotonin available in the synapse by preventing it from being reabsorbed into the sending cell

- the levels of serotonin in the synapse increases

- the concentration of serotonin at the receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron increases

- the stimulation on the receiving nerve intensifies as a result

What are tricyclic antidepressants?

(older generation of antidepressants) work the same way as SSRIs but additionally block the reuptake of another neurotransmitter