GOVERNMENT FINAL EXAM STUDYGUIDE NOTES CHAPTERS 11-13 2026

Chapter 11, 12, and 13

Constituent

a person who lives in an electoral district and is represented by an elected official.

Pork

publicly funded projects secured by a legislator to benefit their home districts or states. The funds of which are said to come from the “Pork Barrel” – the state or national treasury.

Standing Committee

a permanent committee of legislators from either the House or Senate responsible for specific policy areas, such as Foreign Affairs or Agriculture.

Joint Committee

a permanent committee from both the House and Senate that deals with matters of a common interest, such as economic policy.

Conference Committee

a temporary group of legislators from both the House and Senate created to workout differences in bills passed by both houses of Congress.

Appropriations

funds allocated by a legislature for a stated purpose as part of a budget on a bill.

Joint Resolution

An official statement issued by both houses of Congress. Can be signed by the president to become law.

Casework

personal services provided by members of Congress to their constituents, often to help their constituents with problems they are having with the federal bureaucracy.

Congressional Page

someone who works as a messenger and errand runner in the Senate.

Seniority Rule

the tradition that a congressional committee member's seniority – the number of years of unbroken service on a committee – determines a member's position on the committee.

Cloture

the process used to end a Filibuster in the Senate.

Rider

an amendment attached to a bill that has little or no relation to the subject of the bill.

Christmas Tree Bill

a bill with so many riders attached to it that it seems to offer something for everyone.

Log Rolling

the trading of voters among legislators to ensure the passing of different bills in which those legislators have a special interest.

Cabinet

the heads of executive departments appointed by the President

Reprieve

a postponement of punishment for a crime. A person convicted of a capital crime for example, may receive this to avoid execution.

Pardon

a decree that frees a person from punishment for a crime. A pardon is often granted when a criminal sentence is considered unjust.

Executive Order

a rule or regulation issued by the President or Governor that has the force of law

Bureaucracy

a large complex organization that functions under uniform rules and procedures. The many workers in a Government bureaucracy carry out the daily business of that Government.

Pocket Veto

the automatic killing of a bill by refusing to either sign or veto it.

Administration

the President along with his or her personal staff and advisors. The term can also refer to a President's time in office.

Whistle Blower

an employee or former employee who exposes wrongdoing within an organization in the hope of stopping it.

Gerrymandering

the process of intentionally redrawing a district to help/hurt a candidate or party.

Redistricting

the act of redrawing districts.

Cracking

the process of splitting a minority population into two or more districts.

Incumbent

a person who holds/has held a position and is running again.

Packing

the process of placing more minorities into a district to dilute their strength

Census

A count of population that occurs every ten years.

Gideon v. Wainright

courts had to appoint attorneys for defendants who could not retain counsel of their own.

Marbury v. Madison

Established judicial review - the Judiciary branch oversees the actions of the executive and legislative branches if they violate the constitution.

Reapportionment

The redistribution of seats in the House of Representatives based on population changes shown in the census.

Caucus

A closed meeting of members of the same political party to plan strategy and select leaders.

Floor Leaders

Members of Congress who manage and schedule legislation and guide party strategy on the floor.

Whips

Party leaders responsible for counting votes and persuading members to vote with the party.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and the most powerful member of the House; elected by House members.

President of the Senate

The Vice President of the United States; votes only to break ties.

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the power of the other branches.

Power

The ability to influence or control behavior.

Authority

The recognized right to exercise power.

Characteristics of a State

Population, territory, government, and sovereignty.

Public Good

Policies or actions that benefit society as a whole.

Social Contract

An agreement between people and their government in which citizens give up some freedoms for protection and order.

Republic

A system of government in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions.

Democracy

A system of government where power comes from the people.

Autocracy

A government ruled by one person with unlimited power.

Oligarchy

A government ruled by a small group of elites.

Unitary System

All power is held by a central government.

Federal System

Power is shared between national and state governments.

Parliamentary System

The executive branch is chosen by and accountable to the legislature. Legislature selects the executive (Prime Minister).

Presidential

A system where the executive and legislative branches are separate and independently elected.

Declaration of Independence

Document stating the colonies’ reasons for separating from Britain.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. constitution; created a weak national government.

Federalists

Supported ratification of the Constitution.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed the Constitution; wanted stronger state governments and a Bill of Rights.

Elements of the Constitution

Popular sovereignty, federalism, separation of powers, checks and balances, limited government.

Elastic Clause

Allows Congress to pass laws “necessary and proper” to carry out its powers.

Rule of Law

Everyone, including leaders, must obey the law.

Popular Sovereignty

Government power comes from the people.

Federalism

The division of power between national and state governments.

Expressed Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution.

Reserved Powers

Powers not given to the federal government, reserved to states.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by federal and state governments.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law is supreme over state law.

Civil Liberty

Individual freedoms protected from government interference.

Civil Rights

Protections against discrimination.

Prior Restraint

Government censorship before publication.

Slander

False spoken statements that damage a person’s reputation.

Filibuster

Endless debate in the Senate used to delay or block a vote.

Hold

a request by a Senator to delay action on a bill.

Sovereignty

Supreme and absolute authority within a territory.

Nation-State

A political unit where a nation (people with shared identity) coincides with a state (government + territory).

Civil Disobedience

Peaceful refusal to obey unjust laws (ex: MLK, Gandhi).

Legitimacy

Public belief that a government has the right to rule.

Dictatorship / Monarchy

Power held by one ruler; monarchy often hereditary.

Federal System

Power shared between national & state governments.

Confederal System

States hold most power; weak central government.

Great Compromise

Bicameral Congress: House (population), Senate (equal).

Commerce Clause

Congress regulates interstate and foreign trade.

Necessary & Proper (Elastic) Clause

Allows Congress flexibility to carry out powers.

Supremacy Clause (Article VI)

Federal law overrides state law.

Ratifying the Constitution

Approval by 9 of 13 states

Amendment Process

Proposal (2/3 Congress or states), ratification (3/4 states).

1st Amendment

Religion, speech, press, assembly, petition.

Free Exercise Clause

Freedom to practice religion

Establishment Clause

Government cannot establish religion

Exclusionary Rule

Illegal evidence cannot be used in court.

Search Warrant Process

robable cause → judge approval

Self-Incrimination

Cannot be forced to testify against oneself (5th).

Due Process

Fair treatment under the law.

5th–8th Amendments

Protect rights of accused (trial, counsel, no cruel punishment).

Engel v. Vitale

School-sponsored prayer unconstitutional.

Grand Jury

Determines if charges should be filed.

Indictment

Formal criminal charge

Plea Bargain

Guilty plea for lesser charge.

Bail

Money paid to ensure court appearance.

Prosecution vs. Defense

Government vs. accused

Jury Trial Role

Determines guilt or innocence

Powers of Congress

Tax, declare war, regulate commerce

Senate-Only Powers

Treaties, confirmations, impeachment trials

House-Only Powers

Revenue bills, impeachment charges