issues and debates

what are the two common types of bias in psychological research?

gender bias + culture bias

what is alpha bias (gender)?

a tendency to exaggerate gender differences between men and women → consequence is that theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other

what is beta bias (gender)?

a tendency to ignore or minimise differences between men and women - tend to assume that theories based on studies of men will apply equally well to women

what is androcentrism?

centred or focused on men, often leading to the neglect or exclusion of women

what is gender bias?

the differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences

who proposed that there are two different ways to look at gender bias?

Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988)

what are the two ways Hare-Mustin and Marecek suggested to look at gender bias?

alpha bias

beta bias

what theories should aim to be produced (gender+culture)?

ones that have universality

how does androcentrism occur in psychology?

psychology has mostly been very male-dominated

almost all psychologists are men and therefore the theories that they produce tend to represent a male world-view

what do theories with alpha bias do gender?

devalue one gender in comparison to the other

what is an example of alpha bias from Freud’s research?

19th century - men were more powerful and educated so viewed as superior to women

alpha-biased view of psychoanalysis - Freud viewed women as failed men

what did Josselson (1988) say about Freud’s theory in relation to gender?

women are seen as being inferior to men as they experience penis envy since they cannot undergo the same castration anxiety that boys do in the Oedipus complex

since the superego is supposed to develop from the Oedipus complex, women are seen as morally inferior because they have a weaker identification with their mothers

what is the consequence of beta bias (gender)?

the needs of one gender (typically women) are usually ignored

how is fight/flight research a good example of beta bias in research?

biological research was conducted in male animals as in females the variation in hormone levels would make research more difficult

• assumed that male-only samples wouldn’t matter as the response was assumed to be the same for males and females

Taylor et al (2000) challenged this - females produce a tend and befriend response at the time of stress which is adaptive as it provides protection for their offspring and ensures their survival

• beta bias approach meant female behaviour was undiscovered and the stress response was not fully discovered

how can gender bias be solved in research?

wrong to eradicate as would lead to beta bias

= recognising differences but no superiority of a gender over another

how was moral reasoning research an example of gender bias?

Kohlberg (1969) produced an influential theory of moral development - moral judgements made are based on ethic of justice

• research was done on boys + men - asked them to describe what behaviour would be right in certain situations related to fairness

beta bias - assumed male responses would apply to everyone

what was Gilligan (1982)’s response to moral reasoning research?

biased sample and the dilemmas used were biased - male orientation as they were concerned with justice as opposed to a moral of care e.g. hurting someone else’s feelings

Kohlberg tested women - were less morally developed = caused alpha bias

Gilligan - women favoured a care orientation whereas men favoured justice orientation

how can gender bias in research be prevented (feminist psychology)?

feminist psychology - aims to readdress imbalances in psychology theory and research

• agrees that there are biologically based sex differences but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger impact on perceived differences

social change = revision of facts about gender which continue beliefs about women → use evidence about where women are inferior to give them more support

e.g. Eagly (1978) said that if women are less effective leaders then men suitable training programmes should be developed to prevent this

what is an issue with gender bias (bias in research methods)?

• theories are biased due to the methods used

e.g. Rosenthal (1966) found that male experimenters were more friendly and encouraging to female participants = male participants performed less well on assigned tasks

feminists - lab experiments disadvantage women as findings in a controlled lab don’t tell us about women’s experiences outside a lab setting e.g. Eagly and Johnson (1990) noted that in studies in real-world settings women and men were judged as more similar in style then in a lab setting

• suggests there are serious issues in the way data is collected

what is an issue with gender bias (avoiding a beta bias)?

Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) - equality between men and women draws attention away from any special needs women have and from power differences between men and women

• in a society where one group holds power, neutral actions can effect the group with the power

  e.g. equal parental leave ignores the biological demands of pregnancy and breastfeeding - disadvantages women

what is an issue of gender bias (assumptions need to be challenged)?

Issues of gender bias often go unchallenged.

For example, Darwin’s established theory of sexual selection suggests that women are selective (choosy) in terms of mate selection.

These views have only recently been challenged by DNA evidence suggesting that women are equally as competitive as men when the need arises.

what is cultural bias?

tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions - this distorts or biases judgement

what is cultural relativism?

view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates

what is culture?

the rules, customs, morals and ways of interacting the bind together members of a society or a collection of people

what is ethnocentrism?

seeing things from the point of view ourselves and our social group

evaluating other groups of people using the standards and customs of one’s own culture

what does alpha bias mean (culture)?

refers to theories that assume there are real and enduring differences between cultural groups

what is an example of alpha bias in culture research?

the distinction made between individualist and collectivist cultures e.g. would expect people from individualist cultures to be less oriented to group norms

Takano and Osaka (1999) reviewed 15 studies that compared the US and Japan in terms of individualist+collectivist.

14/15 studies did not support the common view about differences in conformity

• finding suggests that the individualism/collectivism dimension may not be a real distinction - no longer useful

what is beta bias (culture)?

refers to theories that ignore or minimise cultural differences

• assuming that all people are the same and therefore it is reasonable to use the same theories/methods with all cultural groups

what is an example of beta bias in psychological research?

• intelligence testing:

psychologists use IQ tests made by Western psychologists to study intelligence in different cultures + assume their view of intelligence applies to all cultures equally

e.g. Western societies see intelligence as something within the individual however a collectivist culture sees intelligence as a functional relationship depending on shared knowledge between the individual and society

→ when western IQ tests are used on non-western cultures they appear less intelligent

what is an imposed etic?

where a research method or psychological test that is developed by one group is imposed on other groups of people

how can ethnocentrism lead to alpha bias?

a culture is seen to be different and better and a consequence is that other cultures and practices are devalued

what is an example of alpha bias in ethnocentrism?

individualist attitudes towards attachment where independence is valued and dependence is seen as undesirable

collectivist cultures = dependence is highly valued

how can ethnocentrism lead to a beta bias?

if psychologists believe their view is the only view/best view

e.g. believed it was ok to use the American IQ test because their standard of intelligence was universal

how can cultural relativism lead to an alpha bias?

the assumption of real differences leads psychologists to overlook universals

what is an example of cultural relativism leading to alpha bias?

Margaret Mead's research in Papua New Guinea where she initially concluded that there were significant gender differences due to culture, but later recognised that there were universals— that the men in all cultures were more aggressive than the women.

what is an example of cultural relativism leading to a beta bias?

 statistical infrequency definition of abnormality - behaviours that are statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically more frequent in another. For example, one of the symptoms of schizophrenia is claiming to hear voices. However, this is an experience that is common in some cultures.

By assuming that the same rules apply universally (a beta bias) -> may diagnose some people

as mentally ill, but that diagnosis is relative to our culture.

what is an issue of culture bias (possible consequences)?

enduring stereotypes concerning cetin ethnic groups with regards to intelligence Gould 1981

The damage done by psychological research which was culturally bias was through the use of the US army IQ test- lowest IQ scores were given to African Americans who were significantly below European and Americans which had an enduring negative impact on their views towards African Americans

This faulty data based on the western white measure of intelligence led to prejudice and stereotypes of certain groups

what is a strength of culture bias (less ethnocentrism)?

likely to disappear due to the worldwide community of psychology today.

Researchers now travel more and so have a better understanding of other cultures both personally and professionally than 50 years ago

Now Psychologists hold conferences where researchers from a wide range of cultures and countries meet to discuss and exchange ideas.

should over time reduce ethnocentrism in psychology as research will be more culturally relative where real differences will be understood

what is an issue with culture bias (bias in research methods)?

Examples of research by Asch, Milgram and Zimbardo are ones where the white, male western students made up the participants and conclusions where drawn and applied to the rest of the world.

In 1998 Smith and Bond 2010 found in one social psychology textbook finding 66% of studies were on Americans, 32% on Europeans and only 2% from the rest of the world

suggests that much of psychology is based on western, male and middle-class samples which fail to represent often the rest of the world

what is a strength of culture bias (indigenous psychology)?

One way to counter ethnocentrisms in psychology is to encourage indigenous

psychologies — the development of different groups of theories in different countries.

For example, Afrocentrism is a movement whose central proposition is that all black people have their roots in Africa and that psychological theories concerning such people

must, therefore, be African-centred and express African values.

Afrocentrism disputes the view that European values are universally appropriate descriptions of human behaviour -

suggests that the values and culture of Europeans at worst devalue non-European people, and at best are irrelevant to the life and culture of people of African descent.

This has led to the development of theories relevant to the life and culture of people of African descent.

what is determinism?

the view that behaviour is controlled by external or internal forces acting upon the individual

• free will is an illusion and we have no control over the forced impacting our behaviour

• consequently, all our behaviour is predictable

what is free will?

each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour

• we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave

assumption is that individuals are free to choose their behaviour and are self-determined

what is hard determinism?

view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no free will → incompatible with free will

• forces outside our control is what shapes our behaviour

what is soft determinism?

a version of determinism which allows for some element of free will

• behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological makeup, but only to a certain extent and there is an element of free will in all behaviour

what is biological determinism?

refers to the idea that all human behaviour is innate and determined

• research into the human genome is producing increasing evidence of genetic influences on behaviour

what is an example of biological determinism?

• biological approach suggests OCD is partly genetic

e.g. Nesdrat et al (2000) found that people with a first-degree relative who suffers from OCD is 1 in 5 times more likely to suffer from OCD at some point in their lives

what is environmental determinism?

view that behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experience - learned by classical and operant conditioning

what is an example of environmental determinism?

behaviourist approach suggests that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning

• therefore to some extent are environmentally determined

what is psychic determinism?

claims that human behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and innate drives (Id, ego and super-ego) as in Freud’s model of psychological development

how does Freud argue for psychic determinism?

Freud viewed behaviour as being controlled from inside the individual through unconscious motivation or childhood events.

Freud used this principle to explain phenomena like slips of the tongue (“Freudian slips”), dreams, and symptoms of mental disorders, arguing that they all have meaningful explanations rooted in the individual’s unconscious mind.

what is an example of psychic determinism?

psychodynamic approach suggests that gender influences the behaviour one acquires in the phallic stage of development - through the resolution of the Oedipus complex or electra complex - where children identify with the same sex parent

what is an example of free will?

• humanistic approach

it emphasizes that people have the freedom to make choices and control their own lives

emphasizes the importance of personal growth and self-actualization - people have an innate drive towards self-actualization

what is scientific determinism?

scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause

• independent variable is manipulated to observe the causal effect on a dependent variable

what is the humanistic approach to free will?

Maslow and Rogers argued that self-determination was a necessary part of human behaviour - without this, healthy self-development + self-actualisation are not possible

• Rogers (1959) claimed that as long as an individual remains controlled by other people they cannot be responsible for their behaviour and cannot change it → things outside a persons sense of self remain outside their control

only when an individual takes responsibility is personal growth possible

what is moral responsibility (free will)?

basis of moral responsibility is that an individual is in charge of their own actions - law states that children and those who are mentally ill do not have this responsibility

but there is the assumption that ‘normal’ adult behaviour is self-determined

what is holism?

perceiving the whole experience rather than the individual features and/or the relations between them

what is reductionism?

approach that breaks complex phenomena into more simple components → is desirable as complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation

what does the reductionist approach suggest in terms of levels of explanation?

explanations look at reductionism at the highest level and then progressively look at component elements

what are the three levels of explanation?

social + cultural

psychological

biological

• least to most reductionist

what are social + cultural explanations for reductionism?

influence of social groups on our behaviour

what are psychological explanations for reductionism?

cognitive, behavioural, environmental

what are the biological explanations for reductionism?

neurochemical and genetic factors

what is an example of social and cultural explanations for reductionism in memory?

memory could be explained at a social + cultural level as research suggests that cultural explanations affect what we remember and how we recall information

what is an example of a psychological explanation for reductionism in memory?

e.g. cognitive psychologists examine particular aspects of memory - Miller (1956) examined the capacity of STM and Peterson + Peterson (1959) examined the duration of STM

what is an example of biological explanations for reductionism in memory?

memory can also be considered in terms of biological components e.g. Maguire et al (2000) found an association between the size of the hippocampus and memory for spatial navigation

what is biological reductionism?

since all animals are made up of atoms, then human behaviour must be explainable at a physical level like this

• biological psychologists reduce behaviour to the action of neurons, neurotransmitters and hormones

e.g. it has been suggested that schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine because of drugs that block this neurotransmitter reduce the symptom of the disorder

what is environmental reductionism?

behaviourist explanations suggest all behaviour can be explained in terms of stimulus-response links e.g. behaviourist explanation for attachment

what is experimental reductionism?

reducing complex behaviours to isolated variables creates a useful strategy for conducting research

underlies the experimental approach where behaviours are reduced to operationalised variables which can be manipulated and measured to determine causal relationships

how does Gestalt psychology link to holism?

adopts a holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces.

how does humanistic psychology link to holism?

believe that the individual reacts as on organised whole as opposed to a set of stimulus-response links

• what matters most is a person’s sense of unified identity and therefore a lack of identity may lead to mental disorder

how does cognitive psychology link to holism?

e.g. memory is a complex system which is understood as connectivist networks

• a network of each unit is linked to many other units which develop through experience and are strengthened or weakened through experience

connectivist networks = holist as the network as a whole behaves differently than individual parts

what scientific principle is reductionism based on?

parsimony - complex phenomena should be explanied in the simplest terms possible

what is a strength of reductionism (scientific)?

biological + environmental reductionism are viewed as scientific

• breaking complex behaviours into small constituent parts = scientifically tested → explanations based on scientific evidence will emerge

e.g. biological therapies such as drugs → SSRI’s are more effective than placebos for treating symptoms of OCD and reduce the symptoms to up to 3 months after (Soomro et al, 2008)

use of SSRI’s in patients with OCD reduces anxiety associated with OCD

what is an issue with reductionism (can lead to inadequate understanding)?

biological reductionism can ;ead to errors of understanding as it ignores the complexity of human behaviour

e.g. to treat ADHD with drugs is the belief that the condition consists of nothing more than neurochemical imbalances and mistakes symptoms of the disorder for its cause

e.g. Ritalin may reduce these symptoms, but conditions which gave rise to the ADHD have not been addressed

• depends on what one thinks of as causation, but since success rates of drug therapy are so highly variable, the biological understanding seems inadequate

what is an issue with environmental reductionism (uses animal studies)?

• lots of the relevant research in the behaviourist tradition has made use of non-human subjects as animals

e.g. Pavlovian experiments are an example

critics of reductionism point to the social context in which humans are embedded from the earliest moments of life, and to hard-to measure factors such as cognition and emotion

environmental reductionist position seems incorrect or at least inadequate

what is an issue with the reductionist approach (not sufficient)?

holistic explanation - blend different levels of explanation and attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour.

For example, the effects of conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of the prisoners and guards in the Stanford prison experiment could not be understood by studying the participants as individuals.

Reductionist explanations may lead to a loss of validity because they ignore the social context where behaviour occurs → often gives behaviour its meaning.

The complexity involved in every behaviour means that a purely reductionist explanations is rarely accepted as sufficient.

what is nature?

• Nativist View: Early nativists such as René Descartes (1596–1650) believed that human characteristics are innate—they are inborn and the result of heredity (genetic transmission).

• Opposition – Empiricism: In contrast, empiricists like John Locke argued the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth. All knowledge and behaviour come from experience—a view that underpins behaviourist psychology.

• Heredity refers to the genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.

• Heritability Coefficient:

  • A statistical measure used to assess the extent to which a trait is genetic.

  • Ranges from 0 to 1.0.

    • 0 = entirely due to environment.

    • 1.0 = entirely due to genetics.

  • Example: IQ heritability is approx. 0.5, suggesting both genes and environment contribute equally to intelligence.

what is nurture?

• The nurture argument states that all behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment, not inherited.

• This view is strongly linked to empiricism and supported by behaviourist theories, which emphasize learning through conditioning and experience.

• The term ‘environment’ is broad and includes multiple levels of influence:

  • Pre-natal environment:

    • Influences before birth, such as the mother’s physical and psychological state during pregnancy.

  • Post-natal environment:

    • Experiences after birth, including social conditions, family, schooling, and peer influences.

  • Cultural and historical context:

    • The wider societal values, time period, and cultural norms that shape development and behaviour.

what is the nature-nurture debate?

argument as to whether a person’s development is due to their genes or to environmental influences

what is the interactionist approach?

• Definition:
  The Interactionist approach recognises that nature and nurture are so closely linked that it is meaningless to separate them. Instead, psychologists focus on how they interact to influence behaviour.

• Example – Attachment:

  • An infant’s innate temperament (nature) influences how parents respond to the child.

  • In turn, parental responses (nurture) affect the child’s future behaviour and emotional development.

  • This demonstrates a reciprocal relationship—a “two-way street”.

• Key Idea:
  Nature can shape nurture, and nurture can shape nature.
  → For example, a child’s genetic disposition might evoke specific responses from their environment (known as evocative gene–environment interaction).

• Conclusion:
  Rather than choosing one side, this approach supports a holistic view of behaviour—acknowledging that genes and environment work together.

what is a genetic explanation as an example of nature?

family studies show that the closer two people are genetically, the more likely that both of them will develop the same behaviours

e.g. the concordance rates for a mental disorder such schizophrenia is about 40% for MZ twins and 7% for DZ twins (Joseph, 2004)

• similarity of individuals with the same genes shows nature has a major contribution to the disorder

what is a evolutionary explanation as an example of nature?

based on the principle that a behaviour or characteristic that promotes survival or reproduction will be naturally selected

• because behaviours are adaptive and therefore are passed on to future generations

e.g. Bowlby (1969) argued that attachments are adaptive for infants as they are protected and therefore more likely to survive

also promotes close relationships which likely fosters successful reproduction

how does behaviourism argue for the influence of nurture?

assume all behaviour can be explained in terms of experience

e.g. Skinner used classical and operant conditioning to explain behaviour

→ attachments can be explained in terms of classical and operant conditioning

how does SLT argue for the influence of nurture?

proposed behaviour is acquired through learning and indirect reinforcement

Bandura acknowledged the role of biology

e.g. the urge to behave aggressively could be biolical but the way the person learns to express anger is through learning

how do other explanations (nurture) argue for the influence of nature?

e.g. double-blind theory of schizophrenia: suggests schizophrenia occurs in children who frequently receive conflicting signals from their parents

these messages about the feelings may prevent the child consistent construction of reality → may lead to symptoms of schizophrenia

what is heredity?

(genetic inheritance) is the process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next.

what is a strength of the interactionist approach (neural evidence)?

growing body of research which highlights the importance of an interactionist approach.

• Research examining neural plasticity suggests that life experiences (nurture) shape our biology (nature) e.g. Maguire et al. (2000) investigated the hippocampi volume of London taxi drivers’ brains ->  found that this region of the brain was larger in taxi drivers in comparison to non-taxi drivers.

Maguire concluded that driving a taxi (nurture) had an effect on the size of the hippocampi (nature), demonstrating the importance of an interactionist approach and presenting evidence the nurture can affect natur

what is a strength of the interactionist approach (twin studies)?

nearly all twin studies also highlight the need for an interactionist approach

• Nestadt et al. (2010) examined previous twin studies in relation to OCD. Nestadt found an average concordance rate of 68% in MZ twins and a 31% concordance rate in DZ twins, highlighting a significant genetic component.

do provide evidence of a strong genetic component, as the concordance rate of MZ (68%) twin is significantly higher than the DZ twins (31%), which suggest that behaviour is partly attributed to nature because MZ twins share 100% genetic relatedness.

However, the results also highlight the role of nurture as the concordance rate is not 100%, again highlighting the importance of taking an interactionist approach.

what is a weakness of the interactionist approach for nature nurture (practical to separate)?

looking at the effects of nature and nurture separately can be useful

• practical applications for the nature side of the debate. For example, drug therapies can be developed to treat behavioural or psychological problems that have a physiological origin. E.g. SSRI’s can be used to treat depression, Ritalin- ADHD.

• practical applications for the nurture side of the debate. For example, If behaviour is susceptible to environmental influences we need to consider how we adapt our environment. E.g. How can we plan interventions for criminal behaviour and reduce aggression?

what is a strength of the interactionist approach (diathesis-stress model)?

Stressors in one’s environment is what causes the expression of these illnesses such so this shows it is the interaction of nature (genes) and nurture  which is a more useful way to understand such disorders

However, this does not mean the person will automatically develop the illness as genes are only expressed in certain conditions

diathesis stress model offers a more modern and useful way to understand the nature nurture debate → Disorders like schizophrenia for example are explained using this model as one might have a genetic vulnerability to develop the disorder

what is an idiographic approach?

focuses on individuals and emphasises uniqueness; favors qualitative measures in research

what is a nomothetic approach?

seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour based on the study of groups and statistical techniques

what does the idiographic approach involve the study of?

of individuals and the unique insights individuals can give us about human behaviour

how does the idiographic approach use qualitative methods?

focus is on gaining insights into human behaviour by studying people in depth as opposed to gaining numerical data from multiple individuals and generating average characteristics

• employs qualitative methods such as case studies and thematic analysis

what are some examples of the idiographic approach?

• Humanistic approach- seeks to understand the 'journey' taken by an individual e.g.: Maslow's hierarchy to chart individual progress​

• Case study of patient HM- longitudinal research with a range of measures such as interviews with family and hospital staff, observations & MRI scans​

what does the nomothetic approach involve the study of?

a large number of people → makes generalisations or laws/theories about behaviour

• goal of the scientific approach

how does the nomothetic approach use quantitative methods?

based on numbers - measures of central tendency and dispersion

these measures require data from groups of people as opposed to individuals

what are some examples of the nomothetic approach?

• Behaviourists (Pavlov and Skinner) conducted experiments with animals to establish laws of learning (classical and operant conditioning) that could be generalised to humans and non-human animals.  ​

• Cognitive Psychologists, such as Atkinson and Shiffrin, developed general laws, such as the Multi-Store Model of Memory, which they believed could be generalised to everyone ​​​

• In Psychopathology, classification manuals (DSM-V) take a nomothetic approach as they classify people with psychological disorders based on specific symptoms.​​

what is a strength of the idiographic approach (focuses on the individual)?

• There has been too much emphasis on measurement + psychologists lost sight of what it means to be human in the last century​

  Allport (first to use the terms idiographic + nomothetic) argued that a drastic shift in thinking was needed ​

• Only by knowing the person as an individual we can predict what they will do in any situation​

• So, this approach gives us a more complete and thorough understanding of behavior

what is a weakness of the idiographic approach (lacks objectivity)?

• Humanistic psychology was not sufficiently evidence-based, and rendered findings meaningless as a result  ​

• However, the evidence has improved as qualitative research uses reflectivity to identify the influence of any biases, through thinking critically during the research to think of confounding behavior from both the researcher + participants ​