APUSH UNIT 7 STUDY GUIDE

7.1: IMPERIALISM DEBATES

CIRCA. (1890s)

THE NEW IMPERIALISM. The US intensified foreign involvement, partly due to the need for raw materials and worldwide markets. Also, many conservatives hoped oversea territories may alleviate unhappiness caused by the Panic of 1893. 

INTERNATIONAL DARWINISM. Concepts of Darwinism were applied to competition among nationals and races for military advantages, colonies, and spheres of influences. This led expansionists to acquire more territory to exert international strength and influence. Namely, Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan were some of the more influential countries to be in constant competition to possess weaker nations in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Ocean. 

             → IMPORTANCE? Some Americans believed that the US needed to begin competing with the imperialist nations for new territory to not be branded as a “second-class power.”

MISSIONARIES. Reverend Josiah Strong wrote in his book, Our Country: It Possible Future and Present Crisis (1885), that Anglo-Saxons were the “fittest to survive.” zHe believed and supported that Protestant Americans had a religious obligation to colonize other lands to spread Christianity and the benefits of their “superior” civilization, aspects such as medicine and technology, to the “less fortunate.” Many missionaries who traveled to nations in Africa, Asia, and in the Pacific Ocean believed in White supremacy.

POLITICIANS. Republican politicians endorsed the use of foreign affairs to search for new markets. Namely, congressional leaders such as Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachuessets and Governor Theodore Roosevelt of New York sought to build US power through global expansion.

NAVAL POWER. U.S Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote a book where he argued that a strong navy was crucial to securing foreign markets and rising as a world power, becoming a critical success and widely read by prominent American citizens. U.S naval strategists persuaded Congress to finance the construction of modernized steel ships and advocated for the acquisition of oversea islands to become coaling and supply stations.

POPULAR PRESS. Press editors increased circulation by printing narratives about exotic and exciting places, leading to rising public interest and demands for an expansion of the US as a global power.

7.2: SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

CIRCA. (1898)

CUBAN REVOLT. In 1985, Cuban nationalists renewed their efforts to overthrow Spanish colonial rule after failing by sabotaging Cuban plantations, hoping to either cause Spain’s withdrawal or gaining an alliance with the U.S. In response, Spain sent autocratic General Valeriano Weyler, and leading over 100,000 troops, he forced civilians into armed camps where they died from disease and starvation, earning him a negative reputation in American press. 

YELLOW PRESS. Journalism that actively promoted “war fever,” featuring bold and exaggerated headlines detailing crime, disaster, and scandal to incite public outrage. Many Americans believed the reports and urged Congress, as well as the President, to intervene in Cuba for humanitarian reasons to effectively end the atrocities occurring.

SINKING OF THE MAINE. On February 15th, 1898, the US battleship Maine was anchored in  Havana, Cuba when it exploded, killing 260 Americans on board., The yellow press accused Spain of deliberately attacking the ship, despite experts later dismantling this accusation and concluding it was likely an accident.

MCKINLEY’S WAR MESSAGE. President McKinley immediately issued an ultimatum to Spain, demanding that they agree to a ceasefire. Spain agreed, though US newspapers and Congress urged for war. In April, McKinley ultimately submitted to public pressure and sent a war message to Congress. 

                –> IMPORTANCE?  He justified U.S intervention in Cuba for four prominent reasons: (1) humanitarian effort to end atrocities in Cuba, (2) protect the lives and property of US citizens in Cuba, (3) end the damage to U.S economical gain in Cuba, and (4) end the constant threat to peace. 

TELLER AMENDMENT. Joint Resolution that declared that the U.S had no intention of taking political control of Cuba, and once peace was restored to the nation, the Cuban people would control their own government.

THE PHILIPPINES. Anticipating war and recognizing the value of Spain's territories, Roosevelt sent a fleet commanded by George Dewey to the Philippines, which had been under Spanish control since the 1500s. On May 1st, shortly after the war declaration, Commodore Dewey’s fleet fired on Spanish ships in Manila Bay, defeating the fleet with naval guns. Though the territorial fight took longer, U.S troops eventually captured the city of Manila on August 13th.

INVASION OF CUBA. In June, an inexperienced, voluntary force landed in Cuba. Foreign diseases proved to be the greatest danger faced by the soldiers, with more than 5,000 American soldiers who died of malaria, typhoid, and dysentery, while fewer than 500 died in battle. Aside from the surmounting deaths due to diseases, attacks by both American and Cuban forces managed to weaken the larger but poorer Spanish Military. Furthermore. Roosevelts volunteers were aided by veteran regimes of African Americans. 

         → IMPORTANCE? Next to the taking of San Juan Hill was the success of the U.S Navy in destroying the Spanish fleet at Santiago Bay. In early August of 1898, Spain recognized that without a navy, they were unable to fight, and asked the U.S for terms of peace.

ANNEXATION OF HAWAII. In 1893, American settlers aided in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarch, Queen Lilliuokalani. Despite this, President Cleveland was against imperialism and blocked the Republican agenda to annex Hawaii. However, the Spanish-American War and fight in the Philippines gave Congress and President McKinley the pretext to complete the annexation in July 1898.

7.3: POSTWAR EFFECTS

CIRCA. (1900-1910)

CONTROVERSY OVER PEACE TREATY. The Peace Treaty affirmed the following: (1) recognition of Cuban independence, (2) U.S acquisition of Puerto Rico and Guam, and (3) U.S acquisition of the Philippines after a payment to Spain of $20 million. Many Americans accepted this provision, however, some were not prepared with taking over the large Pacific island as a colony and what it entailed.

THE PHILIPPINE QUESTION. An annexation dispute erupted, with opinion within the Congress and the public being sharply divided between imperialists and anti-imperialists. Anti-imperialists were determined to defeat the Treaty of Paris due to its provision for acquiring the Philippines.

          → IMPORTANCE? They argued that the U.S would be taking control of a nation that was entirely different from theirs, both in culture and race, for the “first time.” Inherently, they viewed this act as unconstitutional as it would be depriving Fillipinios of their right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” while simultaneously entangling the U.S in the affairs of Asia. The Treaty of Paris was ultimately ratified, with Anti-Imperalists falling two votes short.

INSULAR CASES. Another question was whether territories fell under the provisions of the U.S Constitution. Anti-imperalists argued in the affirmative while Imperialists argued in the negative. 

              → IMPORTANCE? The issue was resolved in the favor of the Imperialists throughout a series of court cases known as the Insular Cases (1901-1903), which ruled that constitutional rights were not automatically extended to acquired territories and the decision belonged to Congress.

THE PLATT AMENDMENT. After remaining for three years, Congress called for the withdrawal of troops in Cuba on the account that the nation accepted the terms of the Platt Amendment of 1901. Hated by Cuban nationalists, the provisions ruled the following, that Cuba must: 

              → (1) never sign a treaty with a foreign power that threatened its independence.

              → (2) allow the U.S to intervene in Cuban affairs if their independence was threatened. 

              → (3) allow the U.S to maintain naval bases in Cuba, with a permanent base in Guantanamo Bay.

ROOSEVELT’S BIG STICK POLICY. Following President McKinley’s assassination by an anarchist, Republican Vice President Theodore Roosevolt, who advocated expansionism, assumed the role of President. Due to a famous phrase, the press described Roosevelt’s aggressive foreign policy as a “big stick.” 

              → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Imperialists applauded Roosevelt’s measures taken to ensure the recognition of the U,S as a world power, but critics disliked him breaking tradition as a noninvolvement in global politics. 

REVOLUTION IN PANAMA. Roosevelt sought to construct a canal in Panama in order to allow easier and cheaper passage for trading goods to the U.S. Frustrated by Columbia’s demands for monetary compensation in exchange for building the canal, with Columbia being in control of Panama during this time period, Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama’s independence in 1903. With the support of the U.S Navy, the revolt succeeded almost immediately and without bloodshed.

                → IMPORTANCE? In return for their support, Panama’s new government signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, granting the U.S all rights over the Canal Zone to keep U.S protection.

PANAMA CANAL. Started in 1904 and completed in 1914, many laborers lost their lives in the effort. Most Americans approved of Rooselvelt’s determination to complete the canal, however others were more critical, specifically Latin Americans. To compensate, Congress paid Columbia a recompensation of $25 million for its loss in Panama. Later, in 1999, the United States returned the Panama Canal after growing tension and disdain. 

RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. In 1904, imperialist rivalries between Russia and Japan culminated in a war, with Japan seemingly winning. Seeking to end the conflict, Roosevelt arranged a diplomatic conference in New Hampshire, with both agreeing to the Treaty of Portsmouth. 

              → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Despite this, Japan held disdain for the U.S, believing it had prevented them from earning “rightful” rewards from Russia.

GENTLEMEN’S AGREEMENT, California laws which discriminated against Japanese- Americans became the forefront of friction between the U.S and Japan, with the act of segregation acting as an insult to the Japanese. In 1908, President Roosevelt constructed a compromise where an informal agreement would be reached; there, Japan secretly agreed to restrict emigration to the U.S and Roosevelt demanded that California revoke its discriminatory laws.

ROOT-TAKAHIRA AGREEMENT (1908). Pledged to mutually respect each nation’s Pacific possessions and support the Open Door policy in China.

7.4: THE PROGRESSIVE ERA

CIRCA. (1901-1917)

ATTITUDES AND MOTIVES. Middle Class Americans were disturbed by the rising power of big businesses, increasing gap between the wealthy and the poor, the uncertainty of business cycles, corrupt political machines, and the violent conflict between labor and capital. Other concerns were the racist Jim Crow laws in the South and the continuing fight for women’s suffrage.

WHO WERE THE PROGRESSIVES? The Progressive group was incredibly diverse. It consisted of Protestant church leaders, African Americans, Union Laborers, and feminists, each campaigning for specific reforms ranging from advocating temperance to dismantling systemic racism to improving labor conditions to earning suffrage for women. 

              → IMPORTANCE? The belief of Progressive was that society desperately needed changes and that the government was the proper agent to correct social and economic life.

THE MUCKRAKERS. Before the public could be roused into taking action in societal reform, it had to be well-informed about the scandalous realities of politics, factories, and slums. Therefore, journalists specialized in exposure reports, featuring in-depth investigative stories that underscored the corrupt aspects within politics, society, and the economy, often criticizing figures in power and demanding reform. 

             → IMPORTANCE? Notable muckrakers include Henry Demarest Lloyd, who wrote a series of articles attacking the practices of the Standard Oil Company and the railroads, and Jacob Riis, who became a bestselling author through chronicling the political corruption in big cities from Philadelphia to Minneapolis.

VOTER PARTICIPATION. Progressives advocated for average citizens participating  in political decision making. By 1910, all states adopted an Australian system where ballots printed by the state required voters to mark their choices secretly in a private booth to avoid vote changing. By 1913, the 17th Amendment was passed, enforcing that all states allowed U.S senators to be elected through popular vote. Progressives further proposed amendments to state constitutions, enacting the three following policies: 

               → (1) Initiative: voters could compel the legislature to consider a bill.

               → (2) Referendum: allowed citizens to vote on proposed laws printed on their ballots.

               → (3) Recall: enabled voters to remove a corrupt or unsatisfactory politician from office by majority vote before that official’s term expired.

TEMPERANCE AND PROHIBITION,  The question on whether or not saloon and the consumption of alcohol should be prohibited caused a divide among Progressives. Urban Progressives generally held little sympathy and support for the temperance movement. However, rural Progressive reformers believed temperance was the key to improving morals and politics in one tactic. 

                → IMPORTANCE? By 1915, they persuaded two-thirds of state legislatures to prohibit the selling of alcohol.

SOCIAL WELFARE. Urban life was improved by the efforts of settlement house workers and other civic volunteers. These workers fought vigorously to meet the needs of immigrants and the working class with varying degrees of success. They campaigned for improving schools, juvenile courts, liberalized divorce laws, and safety regulations for tenement apartments and factories. Additionally, they believed that criminals could undergo reconciliation to become effective members of society, thus they fought for systems of parole, separate reformatories for juveniles, and limiting the death penalty.

CHILD AND WOMEN LABOR,  Progressives felt impassioned to end the mistreatment and involvement of children in the factory industry., The National Child Labor Committee proposed model state child labor laws that were passed by two-third states by 1907. Ultimately, state compulsory school attendance laws effectively kept children in schools and out of mines and factories.

RAILROAD REGULATION. President Roosevelt convinced the Republican majority of Congress to pass two laws that strengthened the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). The Elkins Act (1903) allowed ICC greater authority to stop railroads from granting discounts to favored customers. Meanwhile, the Hepburn Act (1906) enacted that the commission could fix reasonable rates for railroads. 

CONSUMER PROTECTION. In 1906, muckraker Upton Sinclair’s horrifying recount of the unsanitary and unethical conditions in the meatpacking industries, public courage caused Congress to enact two regulatory laws:

              → (1) Pure Food and Drug Act: forbade the manufacturing, selling, and transport of spoiled or mislabeled foods and drugs.

              → (2) Meat Inspection Act: enforced that federal inspectors visit meatpacking plants to ensure updated sanitation protocols. 

CONSERVATION OF PUBLIC LAND. President Roosevelt enthusiastically championed the cause of conservation. He conducted the following during his presidency:

                → (1) Forest Reserve Act (1891): reenacted the policy which set aside 150 million acres of public land as a national reserve, not to be sold to private interests.

                → (2) Newlands Reclamation Act (1902): produced money from the sale of public land for irrigation projects in western states.

                → (3) White House Conference of Governors: hosted this meeting to promote coordinated conservation planning by federal and state governments.

RISE OF THE SOCIALIST PARTY. A third party developed in the early 1900s, dedicated to the welfare of the working class. The Socialist platform consisted of more radical reforms than the Progressives favored public ownerships of railroads, utilities, and even major industries such as oil and steel. 

THE GREAT MIGRATION. Occurring between the 1910s and 1930s, approximately one million African American conducted an internal migration to Northern states. Motives for leaving Southern states consisted of: (1) deteriorating rave relations, (2) destruction of cotton crops, and (3) job opportunities accessible in the North during WW1. Though the Great Depression hindered the migration, it continued throughout WW2. Between 1940 and 1970, over 4 million African Americans migrated North.

CIVIL RIGHTS ORGANIZATION. The National Association for the Advancement of the COlored People (NAACP) was founded by members of the Niagara Movement, a former civil rights organization, and White Progressives. Their mission was to abolish all forms of segregation and increase educational opportunities for African American children. It was the largest civil rights organization in the 1920s, with over 100,000 members. Another organization was the National Urban League, formed in 1911, to help people migrate from Southern towns to Urban cities.

WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE. Carrie Chapman Catt became the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1900. She claimed gaining suffrage would empower women and allow them to actively care for their families in an industrial society. A more militant approach was adopted by some women, who took to the streets with mass pickets, parades, and hunger strikes, led by Alice Paul, who abandoned the NAWSA and formed the National Woman’s Party.

           → IMPORTANCE? The 19th Amendment was ratified in 1920, guaranteeing the women’s right to vote in all elections at the local, state, and national levels. 

7.5: WW1 - MILITARY & DIPLOMACY

CIRCA. (1914-1918)

EVENTS LEADING TO WW1. On June 28th, 1914, Serbian nationalist assassinated Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand – the heir of the Austro-Hungarian empire – and his wife. On July 23, the Austrian government proposed an ultimatum, threatening and invading Serbia four days later (July 27). 

        → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? On July 31st, Russia declared war against Austria and mobilized their armies, entering as allies of Serbia. In retaliation, Germany declared war against Russia, being close allies with Austria, on August 1st. The nation later declared war on France as well, due to their alliance with Russia, and invaded Belgium as it was the quickest route to Paris. On August 4th, Great Britain entered the war as allies of France and Russia.

U.S NEUTRALITY. The decision to remain neutral in European conflicts stemmed from a historical aversion to foreign wars and alliances, shown in George Washington's farewell address. Additionally, the diverse population of the U.S. meant polarized opinions regarding involvement, with immigrants from both Allied and Central Powers countries holding strong loyalties to their homelands.

ECONOMIC LOANS, American banks and industries began to heavily invest in the Allies, notably Great Britain and France. The booming trade with these countries created a vested interest in their victory, challenging the idea of remaining neutral.

SUBMARINE WARFARE. The sinking of the British RMS Lusitania by a German U-boat in 1915, which killed 128 Americans, further inflamed public opinion against Germany. This challenged U.S neutrality as many Americans began to view Germany as a direct threat to American lives and commerce. Additionally, German submarines continued to target ships, worsening relations between the U.S. and Germany. 

ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM. In January 1917, German Minister Arthur Zimmermann sent a secret message to Mexico, proposing a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered WW1. Germany promised to aid Mexico in reclaiming territories lost to the U.S., specifically Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. 

            → IMPORTANCE? It was intercepted and decrypted by British intelligence. The telegram was released to the American public, contributing to rising anti-German sentiment and ultimately influencing the U.S. decision to enter the war.

RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. In 1917, the overthrow of the Tsarist government and the establishment of a Bolshevik regime pulled Russia out of World War I. The fall of an autocratic government aligned with the Allies but the rise of a communist government alarmed the U.S.

             → IMPORTANCE? U.S. involvement in WWI was further motivated by the desire to promote democracy and contain the spread of communism.

DECLARATION OF WAR. On April 2nd, 1917, President Wilson held a special procession, composed of senators and representatives, and pleaded with Congress to recognize that a state of war existed between Germany and the U.S. He condemned Germany’s submarine tactics, labeling them as a threat against mankind, and declared that the world “must be made safe for democracy.” 

           → IMPORTANCE? On April 6th, an overwhelming majority of Congress voted in favor of war, with exceptions of a few pacificists.

FINANCE. Wilson’s government managed to raise $33 billion in two years through a combination of loans and taxes. It connected four massive drives ro convince Americans to put their savings into federal government Liberty Bonds. Congress also increased income and cooperative taxes, while they imposed taxes on luxury goods,

SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT (1917). Despite the surge of voluntary enlistments, the military needed more soldiers and sailors. To satisfy this need, Newton D. Baker, the Secretary of War, constructed the “selective service” system to draft men into the military. He sought a democratic organization, therefore had local boards running the operation to ensure all men from the population were called to serve. The registration requirements were all men between the ages of 21 and 30 (later 18 to 40).

           → IMPORTANCE? Due to this Act, approximately 2.8 million viable men were called to serve, in addition to the 2 million men who volunteered.

AFRICAN AMERICANS. Served in segregated units and faced discrimination both at home and in the military. They contributed to the war effort as laborers, soldiers, and support personnel, with the 369th Infantry Regiment, known as the Harlem Hellfighters, gaining recognition for their bravery.

          → IMPORTANCE? Marked a crucial moment in the struggle for civil rights, laying the groundwork for future activism and challenges to segregation in the military and society.

NAVAL OPERATIONS. Ensured the safety of Allied shipping and maintained maritime strength. The U.S expanded its naval fleet significantly, deploying offensive ships and cruisers to protect convoys from German U-boat attacks. Additionally, the U.S Navy participated in significant battles, such as the Battle of Belleau Wood, and assisted in the blockade of Germany.

AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCE. Established in 1917, it was the United States Army's primary fighting force during World War I, composed of American troops deployed to Europe under the command of General John J. Pershing. The AEF aided in turning the war tide against Central Powers, particularly through key battles such as those at Cantigny, Château-Thierry, and the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. 

            → IMPORTANCE? The force showcased the nation's emerging military capabilities and commitment to international alliances. 

FOURTEEN POINTS. Outlined President Wilson’s vision for lasting peace following WW1. It emphasized principles such as self-determination for nations, open diplomacy, and free trade. Key points included: the reduction of armaments, the establishment of the League of Nations to foster international cooperation, and the abolition of secret treaties. These principles aimed to address the underlying causes of conflict and promote global stability. 

TREATY OF VERSAILLES. Signed in 1919, it established the League of Nations aimed at consolidating international diplomacy, redrew European borders and assigned primary responsibility for the war to Germany through the War Guilt Clause. The treaty required Germany to pay substantial reparations, reduce its military, and forfeit territories.

          → IMPORTANCE? This led to economic hardship and resentment among the German population. Ultimately, the harsh terms of the treaty contributed to political instability in Germany and the rise of extremist movements in the following decades.

7.6: WW1 - HOME FRONT

CIRCA. (1914-1918)

WARTIME JOBS FOR WOMEN. As men were drafted into the military, women assumed the jobs vacated by the enlisted men. Women’s contributions to the war effort convinced Wilson and Congress to change their attitudes towards suffrage and support the 19th Amendment.

ANTI-GERMAN HYSTERIA. Provided an excuse for nativist groups to take out their prejudices, charging minorities with disloyalty. Under the order of the U.S secretary of Labor, manufacturers of war materials could refuse to hire and could fire Americans of German descent.

ESPIONAGE ACT OF 1917. Provided for the imprisonment of a 20 year maximum sentence for individuals who tried to spark rebellion in armed forces or obstruct the operation of the draft.

SEDITION ACT OF 1918. Prohibited individuals from making “disloyal” or “abusive” statements about the U.S government.

SCHENCK V. UNITED STATES, A man was prosecuted under the Espionage Act, having distributed pamphlets that protested the draft. In 1919, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes concluded that the right to free speech could be limited when it presented itself as “a danger to society.”

THE RED SCARE, In 1919, fears of communism fueled by the Communist takeover in Russia caused the anti-German hysteria to turn into anti-Communist hysteria, fueling xenophobia that resulted in immigration restrictions during the 1920s.

PALMER RAIDS. Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer established a special office to gather information on radicals following unexplained bombings. To add, Palmer ordered mass arrests of suspected anarchists, specialists, and labor agitators. Most of the suspects arrested were foreign born, and 500 of them were deported.

LABOR CONFLICT. Under Theodore Roosevelt, laborer workers had been offered a “square deal” and protection from lawsuits under the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. However, the postwar period brought a series of strikes and a fear of revolution that turned public opinions against unions.

STRIKES OF 1919. Included the notable Boston Police Strike and the Seattle General Strike, driven by post-World War I inflation and labor demands for better wages and working conditions. Often led to heightened tensions between labor groups and authorities, with many Americans fearing communism and radicalism. 

           → IMPORTANCE? As a result, the strikes prompted backlash against labor movements, leading to governmental crackdowns and a decline in union membership. 

7.7: INNOVATION & TECHNOLOGY

CIRCA. (1920s)

ELECTRICITY. Key developments included the introduction of household appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, and toasters, which revolutionized domestic life by reducing labor and increasing convenience. This new consumer culture was characterized by a growing emphasis on modernity and the appeal of electric-powered products, which were marketed as essential for a comfortable, efficient lifestyle.

THE RADIO. Brought news, music, and entertainment directly into homes, forming a shared national culture. The creation of major radio networks, such as NBC (National Broadcasting Company) and CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System), helped standardize programming and reach wider audiences. These networks created popular shows that attracted millions of listeners.

           → IMPORTANCE? Influenced social behavior and cultural norms. To add, it contributed to the rise of popular culture, such as jazz music and the broader American entertainment industry.

AUTOMOBILE. Facilitated greater mobility, allowing people to travel longer distances more easily and encouraging suburban expansion. Simultaneously, new infrastructure, such as highways and gas stations, began to develop, greatly altering the landscape of cities and towns. Contributed to a more individualistic society where personal freedom and leisure took on new meanings, being used for shopping, traveling for pleasure, and even dates. Spurred economic growth by creating jobs not only in auto manufacturing but also in ancillary industries like steel, rubber, and road construction.

         → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Rapid expansion of automobile ownership also brought challenges, such as increased traffic accidents, pollution, and urban sprawl.

TALKIES. Production of films increased, and new jobs were created, from actors to sound engineers. Economic growth extended beyond Hollywood, impacting related industries such as music and advertising. Moreover, Talkies furthered the spread of new social norms and ideas. They popularized jazz music, influencing American culture and promoting a more vibrant, modern lifestyle. The ability to hear different accents and languages on screen broadened audiences' perspectives and promoted cultural exchange.

7.8: CULTURAL & POLITICAL CONTROVERSIES

CIRCA. (1920s)

GENDER ROLES. Women increasingly entered the workforce, taking on roles that were traditionally held by men, especially in clerical and retail positions. This economic independence added to a change in societal expectations. This enabled the new image of the "flapper," a young woman with a liberated lifestyle characterized by shorter dresses, bobbed hair, and a more carefree attitude towards traditional values.

          → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Sparked backlash among conservative members of society which leads to controversy over women's roles in public and private spheres. 

REVOLUTION IN MORALS. Significant transformation in societal morals and attitudes, particularly in relation to sexuality, personal freedom, and women's rights. Austrian Psychiatrist Sigmund Freud’s theories had great influence, arguing that sexuality was a fundamental part of human nature, not something to be repressed. Freud proposed that understanding and acknowledging one's sexual desires was essential for mental health, leading to a greater acceptance of sexual expression. Meanwhile, Margaret Sanger advocated for women's reproductive rights and believed in the importance of family planning. In 1916, she opened the first birth control clinic in the U.S and founded the American Birth Control League, which eventually became Planned Parenthood.

MODERNISM. Key features included a focus on individualism, experimenting with narrative styles, and an emphasis on the broken nature of reality. Writers like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway captured the adversity and moral ambiguity of the post-war era, while artists such as Pablo Picasso and Georgia O'Keeffe redefined visual representation through abstract forms and innovative techniques.

FUNDAMENTALISM. A religious movement characterized by strictly abiding to biblical principles and a reaction against modernism and secularism. It led to a revival of conservative values, including religious activism and a push against progressive reforms, viewed as morally corrupt. The movement aligned with organizations opposing immigration, advocating for Prohibition, and promoting traditional family values. 

THE SCOPES TRIAL. In 1925, a significant legal battle challenged the state's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of evolution in public schools. The trial took place in Dayton, Tennessee and was a focal point for the cultural clash between modernist and traditionalist values, highlighting the period tensions between science and religion. 

           → IMPORTANCE? Sparked national debates on educational freedom and the interpretation of the Constitution, ultimately furthering academic freedom despite the conviction of teacher John T. Scopes.

PROHIBITION DEFIANCE. Manifested through the rise of speakeasies, bootlegging, and organized crime, as individuals and groups actively defied the Eighteenth Amendment prohibiting alcohol sales. This defiance not only undermined prohibitory laws but also contributed to vibrant underground culture, leading to a public backlash against Prohibition. 

            → IMPORTANCE? Highlighted the conflict between legislation and society, paving the way for the eventual repeal of the amendment in 1933.

QUOTA LAWS. Imposed strict limitations on immigration by establishing quotas based on national origins, reducing the number of immigrants allowed from Southern and Eastern Europe while favoring Northern and Western European countries. This legislation reflected growing nativist sentiments and racial biases.

          → IMPORTANCE? Contributed to a decline in immigration rates, reshaped the demographic makeup of the United States, and intensified social tensions as various ethnic groups were marginalized.

7.9: THE GREAT DEPRESSION

CIRCA. (1929-1939)

STOCK MARKET CRASH. Often considered the starting point of the Great Depression. Saw a dramatic decline in stock prices, leading to widespread financial panic and bank failures. 

UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME. Created an economic imbalance where a small percent of society held a significant amount of wealth. Limited the amount consumers could purchase, leading to overproduction and unsold goods, not being able to afford the products. Also, the reliance on stock market investments by wealthier individuals and companies increased the fragility of the economy, strengthening the impact of the crash. 

STOCK MARKET SPECULATION. Investors engaged in risky buying practices, often purchasing stocks on margin with borrowed money. This speculative bubble inflated stock prices beyond their actual value, leading to widespread panic when prices began to decline. As investors rushed to sell their stocks to reduce losses, the market sell-off triggered the catastrophic crash, strengthening the economic decline.

WEAK FARM ECONOMY. Struggling farmers faced declining prices and rising debts, resulting in widespread foreclosures. This limited the amount rural individuals could purchase, weakening demand for industrial goods. As farmers suffered, so did related industries, highlighting the economic instability and leading to a loss of confidence in the stock market.

GOVERNMENT POLICIES. Promoted speculation and economic imbalance. The Federal Reserve's decision to maintain low-interest rates encouraged excessive borrowing and risky investments, creating an unsustainable market. In addition, tariffs like the Smoot-Hawley Act stifled international trade.

FEDERAL FARM BOARD. Established in 1929 to stabilize agricultural prices, but it faced challenges due to overproduction and declining prices in agriculture. Its efforts to purchase surplus crops and support farmers failed, furthering financial distress among farmers.

RECONSTRUCTION FINANCE CORPORATION (RFC). Established in 1932 to provide financial support to banks, businesses, and state and local governments. Its purpose was to stimulate economic activity by lending funds to stabilize the economy. 

            → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Faced criticism for favoring larger businesses and financial institutions, leaving smaller firms and individuals struggling.

7.10: THE NEW DEAL

CIRCA. (1930s)

PHILOSOPHY. Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. It emphasized the government's responsibility to provide economic relief and recovery through direct intervention in the economy. The policies intended to address widespread unemployment and poverty by focusing on job creation, social welfare, and regulation of financial institutions.

BANK HOLIDAY. In March 1933, the temporary closing of all banks was enforced to stabilize the financial system amid the Great Depression. This emergency measure was to prevent bank runs and restore public confidence, allowing time for restructure and providing federal assistance to the banking sector. 

PROHIBITION REPEAL. In December 1933, Prohibition was effectively ended, marked by the ratification of the 21st Amendment. The legalization of alcohol predominantly aimed to increase tax revenue and create jobs in brewing and distilling, aligning with New Deal efforts to revive the economy. 

FINANCIAL RECOVERY & REFORM. The Emergency Banking Act allowed for the reopening of solvent banks and the establishment of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to insure deposits. Also, the Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) was created to regulate the stock market and prevent abuses, resulting in a stable economic environment.

RELIEF FOR THE UNEMPLOYED. The Public Works Administration (PWA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided immediate job opportunities by sponsoring public works projects and conservation initiatives. 

INDUSTRIAL RECOVERY & REFORM. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) aimed to stimulate economic growth by regulating industry, promoting fair competition, and setting minimum wages and maximum hours for workers. Additionally, it gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively. 

          → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? The program operated with limited success for two years before being deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935.

AGRICULTURAL RECOVERY & REFORM. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) sought to raise crop prices by reducing overproduction. The government paid farmers to limit their crop acreage and reduce livestock numbers, which aimed to stabilize the agricultural economy and improve farmers' incomes. 

THE SOCIAL SECURITY ACT OF 1935. Provided financial security for the elderly, unemployed, and disadvantaged individuals. It offered financial assistance to retirees aged 65 and older through a system of payroll taxes collected from workers and their employers, and for temporarily unemployed individuals while they sought new jobs. To add, the act included financial aid for low-income families, particularly those with children, to help lift them out of poverty. 

CRITICISM OF THE NEW DEAL. Argued that its policies expanded federal power excessively and created a dependency on government aid, undermining societal initiative and promoting socialism. Notable opponents included Republicans, who believed the New Deal was ineffective and overly interruptive, as well as some Progressives who felt it did not go far enough in addressing issues of economic inequality. Additionally, business leaders were concerned about increasing regulations and taxes, fearing that these policies would slow economic recovery.

7.11: INTERWAR FOREIGN POLICY

CIRCA. (1920s-1930s)

WASHINGTON CONFERENCE OF 1921. Addressed naval disarmament and tensions in the Asia-Pacific region, resulting in treaties such as the Five-Power Treaty, which established limits on naval capacities among major powers, and the Four-Power Treaty, ensuring mutual respect for Pacific territories. 

KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT OF 1928. An international agreement that renounced war as a means of resolving conflicts and to promote peaceful diplomacy. It was a response to the devastation of WW1 and reflected the widespread desire for global peace.

GOOD NEIGHBOR POLICY OF 1933. Created to improve relations between the United States and Latin American countries by emphasizing mutual respect and non- intervention. This policy was strengthened through Pan-American Conferences, where leaders from across the Americas gathered to discuss cooperation, trade, and the promotion of political stability, thus forming a sense of solidarity among present nations. 

ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY. Involved strategic engagement with foreign nations to promote American interests and influence global affairs. The recognition of the Soviet Union in 1933 was a significant step to establishing trade relations and countering Japan’s rising power. Additionally, reciprocal trade agreements were promoted to strengthen international trade partnerships and reduce tariffs.

RISE OF TOTALITARIANISM ABROAD. Totalitarian regimes emerged prominently in several countries. Most notable were in Germany under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, Italy under Benito Mussolini and the Italian Fascist Party, and Japan under Emperor Hirohito as they exploited economic instability and nationalistic sentiments to consolidate power.

NEUTRALITY ACTS. The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s were a series of legislation aimed at preventing the United States from being drawn into international conflicts following the aftermath of World War I. 

               → (1) Neutrality Act of 1935: gave the president the authority to prohibit all arms shipments and forbid U.S citizens to travel on belligerent nation ships.

               → (2) Neutrality Act of 1936: forbade the allowance of loans and credits to rival nations.

               → (3) Neutrality Act of 1937: prohibited the shipment of arms to the opposing sides in the civil war in Spain.

SHIFTING NEUTRALITY. The U.S shifted from its strict policy of neutrality because of the escalating threats posed by Axis powers in Europe, particularly Germany's invasion of Poland. The outbreak of WW2 prompted Congress to revise neutrality laws.

CASH AND CARRY (1939). Allowed for the sale of weapons and goods to Allied nations, provided those nations paid in cash and transported the materials themselves. This policy was intended to support the Allies while avoiding direct involvement in the war and preventing the risks of extending credit.

AMERICA FIRST COMMITTEE. A prominent isolationist organization established in 1940 that advocated for American neutrality and opposed intervention in European conflicts. It gained immense support from many sectors of society, arguing that the U.S. should focus on domestic defense and issues rather than interfering in foreign wars.

SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT OF 1940. Required all men ages 21 to 36 to register for military service. This legislation was enacted in response to growing global tensions and the need to prepare for potential involvement in WW2.

DESTROYERS-FOR-BASES DEAL OF 1940. A deal between the United States and Great Britain in which the U.S. transferred 50 obsolete destroyer warships to Britain in exchange for exclusive rights to establish military bases on British territories in the Caribbean and Atlantic. 

FOUR FREEDOMS SPEECH. Delivered in January 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt conveyed the fundamental freedoms that he believed should be guaranteed to all people: freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. Roosevelt argued that these freedoms were vital for a secure and fair world, particularly in the context of the rising threats of totalitarianism and global war. 

LEND-LEASE ACT. Enacted in March 1941, it allowed the United States to supply Allied nations with military equipment and supplies without requiring immediate payment, effectively aiding countries like Britain and later the Soviet Union during World War II. 

ATLANTIC CHARTER. Agreed upon by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill in August 1941, it outlined their world vision after WW2 and established principles such as self-determination, economic cooperation, and collective security. The charter served as a foundation for the United Nations by promoting international collaboration and was significant in rallying support for the Allied war effort. 

SHOOT-ON-SIGHT. Authorized American soldiers to engage and kill any enemy soldiers who approached U.S. defenses without hesitation. This controversial policy sought to discourage enemy forces and minimize risks to American troops, but it raised ethical concerns regarding the treatment of potentially innocent individuals. 

DISPUTES WITH JAPAN. Tensions with Japan escalated due to Japan's aggressive expansion in Asia, particularly its invasion of China (Manchurian Massacre) and subsequent occupation of French Indochina. The U.S. responded with economic sanctions, including an oil embargo, which severely threatened Japan's military ambitions. 

7.12: WW2 - MOBILIZATION

CIRCA. (1939-1945)

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. Implemented the War Production Board (WPB), which coordinated industrial production to prioritize war materials. Expanded its power through the draft and the Office of Price Administration (OPA), which controlled prices and rationed essential goods to support the war effort. Agencies like the War Manpower Commission (WMC) ensured the recruitment and training of millions of Americans into the armed forces and defense industries.

BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY. Transitioned from peacetime production to wartime manufacturing, significantly increasing outputs of military equipment and supplies. Key industries such as automobile, steel, and textiles retooled their facilities, working with the federal government to meet the urgent demands of the war. 

        → IMPORTANCE? Not only boosted the economy and reduced unemployment but also stimulated technological advancements that would have lasting effects on the post-war industry.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. Marked by government initiatives and working with private industry to further advances in technology and weaponry. The Manhattan Project underscores this effort, as it brought together notable intellectuals in science to develop atomic weapons, reflecting the urgency of wartime innovation. Additionally, other advancements in fields such as aviation, radar, and medical technology played crucial roles in the Allied victory.

WORKERS AND UNIONS. Increased production and labor efficiency in factories. Unions, such as the United Auto Workers (UAW) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), collaborated with the federal government to ensure that workers enjoyed fair wages and better working conditions while emphasizing patriotism and the importance of their contributions to the war. 

FINANCING THE WAR. Increased its financial mobilization efforts through several ways, including war bonds, increased taxes, and the establishment of the War Production Board to manage resources. To finance the war, Congress raised income taxes and introduced the Victory Tax, which expanded the tax base to more Americans, while also encouraging citizens to purchase war bonds to support military spending. 

WARTIME PROPAGANDA. The government employed media, including films, posters, and radio broadcasts, to convey messages that emphasized patriotism, the fight against tyranny, and the importance of sacrifice for the greater good. Organizations like the Office of War Information (OWI) played a crucial role in creating and disseminating these messages, creating a sense of unity and purpose among the American people while encouraging enlistment and support for wartime production.

7.13: WW2 - MILITARY

CIRCA. (1939-1945)

SEA DEFENSE, AIR ATTACKS (FIGHTING GERMANY). Sea defense was known as the Battle of the Atlantic, which was crucial for maintaining supply lines to Europe. American naval forces, alongside the British, engaged in convoy operations and anti-submarine warfare to counter German U-boats threatening merchant ships. Additionally, air assaults on German infrastructure and military targets supported Allied ground operations.

NORTH AFRICA TO ITALY (FIGHTING GERMANY). Launched in November 1942, Operation Torch involved a coordinated Allied invasion of French North Africa, targeting Morocco and Algeria, and aimed to secure the area to launch further offensives into Southern Europe, particularly Italy. This strategic operation was to not only weaken Axis powers but to gain valuable experience for American forces in large-scale joint operations.

D-DAY TO VICTORY IN EUROPE (FIGHTING GERMANY). On June 6, 1944, Allied forces launched a massive invasion of Normandy, France, marking the beginning of liberating Western Europe from Nazi control. The successful landings established a crucial foothold, allowing Allied troops to push further into German-occupied territory and resulting in the liberation of Paris by August 1944. 

              → IMPORTANCE? The eventual collapse of German forces culminated in their unconditional surrender on May 7, 1945. 

HOLOCAUST DISCOVERY. As U.S. troops advanced into Germany, they uncovered the horrific realities of the Holocaust. They discovered concentration camps and evidence of the systematic extermination of six million Jewish individuals and millions of others, including LGBTQ+ men and Romani, Polish, Black, Disabled, and Jehovah Witness’ communities.

ISLAND HOPPING (FIGHTING JAPAN). Involved strategically capturing important islands while bypassing others that were heavily fortified by Japanese forces. This approach aimed to establish a chain of military bases and airfields, allowing for more effective attacks on Japan. Key battles include those in Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.

MAJOR BATTLES (FIGHTING JAPAN). Most notable was the pivotal Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944, one of the largest naval battles in history and marked the beginning of the liberation of the Philippines. The battle also saw the extensive use of kamikaze tactics by Japanese pilots, who sacrificed themselves in suicide attacks on U.S. ships, reflecting Japan's desperation as the war turned against them. 

ATOMIC BOMBS (FIGHTING JAPAN). The Manhattan Project was a top-secret U.S. government program focused on developing atomic weapons. Notable scientists Robert Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi used principles of nuclear fission, where the splitting of atoms releases vast amounts of energy, to design the bomb. The project culminated on July 16, 1945 with the Trinity Test, the first successful testing of the atomic bomb, in New Mexico. 

          → IMPORTANCE? Following this, the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, where a total of 250,000 Japanese civilians died either immediately or from the agonizing radiation poisoning that resulted.

JAPANESE SURRENDER. Formally announced on August 15, 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki earlier that month. On September 2, 1945, Japanese officials signed the formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, officially ending the war.

CASABLANCA CONFERENCE. In January 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill coordinated military strategies for the Allied powers. The leaders committed to the policy of "unconditional surrender" for Axis powers, setting the course for the war's outcome. They also agreed to increase bombing campaigns in Germany and to focus on invading Italy as a means to weaken Axis control in Europe.

TEHRAN CONFERENCE. In November-December 1943, the "Big Three" Allied leaders: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin (after switching sides) met for the first time to coordinate military strategy against Nazi Germany. Additionally, they planned the post-war world, particularly the proposed invasion of France (Operation Overlord) and the Soviet Union’s desire to enter war against Japan after Germany's defeat. 

YALTA CONFERENCE. In February 1945, Allied leaders Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin met to plan the post-war reorganization of Europe. They agreed on the division of Germany into occupation zones and established the groundwork for the United Nations, while addressing the fate of Eastern European countries. 

DEATH OF FDR. President Franklin D. Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, from a cerebral hemorrhage just as WW2 was reaching its final stages in Europe. His passing led to Vice President Harry S. Truman assuming the presidency.

POTSDAM CONFERENCE. in July-August 1945, Allied leaders including Harry S. Truman, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin met to discuss the postwar order in Europe and the administration of defeated Germany. Key agreements included the demilitarization and democratization of Germany, the establishment of borders in Eastern Europe, and plans for war reparations. 

7.14: POSTWAR DIPLOMACY

CIRCA. (1945-1952)

UNITED NATIONS. Established on October 24, 1945 with the aim of promoting international cooperation and preventing future conflicts among nations. Founding member countries included the U.S, U.K, Soviet Union, China, and France. These nations played crucial roles in shaping UN structure, primarily through the UN Charter which emphasized collective security and human rights. 

           → IMPORTANCE? Involvement in peacekeeping missions, human rights advocacy, and addressing global issues, solidified its position as a central institution for international relations.

MARSHALL PLAN. Known as the European Recovery Program, it was initiated in 1947 by the U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall to aid Western Europe in reconstruction. From 1948 to 1952, the U.S provided over $12 billion in economic assistance to 16 countries, including the U.K, France, Italy, and Germany, to help rebuild their economies and stabilize governments.