Psych Unit 4 Vocab

Attribution Theory

How we attribute feelings and intentions to people to understand their behaviors.

Fundamental Attribution Theory

An individual's tendency to attribute another's actions to their character or personality, while attributing their behavior to external situational factors outside of their control.

Actor-Observer Bias

A tendency to explain our own behaviors differently (and more leniently) than how we explain the behavior of others.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors (personal traits/skills) while attributing negative outcomes to external factors (other people, etc).

Social Comparison (Upward and Downward)

Upward comparison is to compare yourself to someone you perceive better than you.

Downward comparison is to compare yourself to someone you perceive to be worse than you.

Relative Deprivation

The feeling of lacking resources or opportunities in comparison to others.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When a person's expectations/beliefs cause them to act to make their expectations come true.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

A way of thinking that views setbacks as temporary and solvable.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

A way of thinking that blames negative events on internal, stable, and global factors.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that a person has the power to influence the outcomes in their life.

External Locus of Control

The belief that events in one's life are determined by external factors that are beyond their personal choice.

Mere Exposure Effect

A phenomenon that describes how people develop a preference for things they are familiar with (familiarity principle).

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward another person/group because of the group they're a part of.

Stereotype

An oversimplified and often inaccurate belief/assumption about a group of people.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort required to process information.

Discrimination

The unfair treatment of people/groups based on their characteristics.

Implicit Attitudes

The automatic evaluations of people, places, or things that are not consciously considered.

Just-World Phenomenon

The tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve.

Out-Group Homogeneity

The tendency to see members of other groups as more similar to each other than members of your own group.

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor people who are part of the same group as you.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior to others.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to hold onto one's beliefs even when new information contradicts them.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms their existing beliefs even if the evidence is weak.

Cognitive Load

Mental effort required to process information.

Social Norms

The shared expectations of how people behave in a group or society.

Normative Social Influence

The social pressure that causes people to conform to a group's norms in order to be accepted.

Informational Social Influence

A phenomenon that causes people to change their opinions/behaviors based on what others believe to be true.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory that explains how people process persuasive information and change their attitudes.

Central Route to Persuasion

A method of convincing others to make a decision based on the facts and evidence of the merits of the outcome.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

A method of convincing others to change their attitude by appealing to their emotions (not the merits).

Halo Effect

A bias where a person's overall judgment is based on a single trait.

Foot-In-The-Door

A persuasion tactic involves asking someone to complete a small task before asking them to do something larger.

Door-In-The-Face

A persuasion tactic where someone makes a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be rejected, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request which the person is then more likely to agree to.

Conformity

When people change their opinions/behaviors to match those of a group.

Obedience

The act of following the orders or an authority figure even if it goes against their personal values.

Individualism

The ways in which people identify themselves and focus on their goals, giving priority to personal goals.

Collectivism

A worldview that prioritizes group goals over individual goals.

Multiculturalism

The coexistence and mutual respect of different cultures within a society.

Group Polarization

A phenomenon where a group's opinions become more extreme after a group discussion.

Groupthink

When well-intentioned people make irrational/non-optimal decisions because they were discussing in a group.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A phenomenon where people are less likely to help when others are present.

Social Loafing

When people put in less effort when working in a group than alone.

Deindividuation

A state where people lose their sense of self and identity when they are in a group.

Social Facilitation

Phenomenon where people perform better on tasks when others are present (remember Jordan Poole).

False Consensus Effect

A bias where people overestimate how many others share their beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate Goals

Goals that are appealing to multiple groups and can only be achieved by working together.

Social Trap

A situation where people take actions that result in short-term gains but long-term losses.

Industrial-Organization Psychology

A field that applies psychological principles to the workplace.

Altriusm

To be selfless and only express concern for the well-being of others.

Social Debt

A perceived obligation to reciprocate social favors/support they receive from others.

Social Responsibility Norm

A societal expectation that people should help those in need - promoting altruism.

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will respond to others in similar ways - encourages people to return favors.

Bystander Effect

The effect where if there are multiple bystanders, individual people are less likely to offer help, thinking that somebody else will do it.

Ego Defense Mechanism (all 8)

Repression - To unconsciously forget about unpleasant thoughts.

Denial - Denying the existence of the painful realities to cope.

Projection - Where people attribute their own thoughts/feelings to others (getting mad at others for being stupid when you are).

Sublimation - Where unacceptable impulses are channeled into acceptable activities (anger to boxing)

Rationalization - Where people create self-justifying explanations for their thoughts (getting mad at the teacher for you being stupid).

Regression - Going back to an earlier stage in development to cope (sucking thumb on the first day of school).

Reaction Formation - To express the opposite of your true feelings (laughing at a funeral).

Displacement - Redirecting negative feelings from the original source to a safer target (beating your wife for getting laid off).

Projective Tests

Personality tests interpret ambiguous images to reveal the unconscious.

Humanism

The approach to psychology about one's potential self-direction, and wellbeing.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Showing complete support/acceptance of a person, no matter what they do.

Self-Actualizing Tendency

Everyone's innate drive to be the best person they can be.

Preconscious/Unconscious Mind

Preconscious Mind - Thoughts/memories that aren't in the current awareness but can easily be brought up.

Unconscious Mind - Thoughts/memories that are are not accessible to the conscious awareness.

Social-Cognitive Theory

The theory that explains how people learn and behave.

Behavior is influenced by their personal factors, environment, and interactions with others.

Reciprocal Determinism

The theory that a person's behavior influences and is influenced by personal factors, environment, and social environment.

Self-Concept

The perceptions that we have of ourselves.

Self-Efficacy

A person's belief in their ability to complete a task. This allows them to encompass their confidence/motivation to exert influence over their environment.

Self-Esteem

Overall sense of self-worth.

Trait Theory

Theory that describes people by their distinct traits, habits, thoughts, and emotions.

Big 5 Traits (all 5)

Openness - Willingness to try new things/be creative.

Conscientiousness - Level of organization and responsibility.

Extraversion - A person's preference for social interaction.

Agreeableness - Tendency to be cooperative and trusting.

Neuroticism - Tendency to experience negative emotions.

Personality Inventories

A psychological tool that measures personality traits, behaviors, and preferences (a questionnaire).

Factor Analysis

Technique to identify the underlying factors that explain relationships between variables.

Drive Reduction Theory

People are driven to reduce internal tensions and drives.

Hemostasis

How psychological stress influence the body's ability to stop bleeding.

Arousal Theory

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson Law (optimal arousal)

Psychological principle that states that performance improves with arousal but only up to a point.

Self-Determination Theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic Motivation

engaging in an activity because of the satisfaction/enjoyment it provides - not the external rewards (curiosity).

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in an activity to obtain a reward/avoid a punishment.

Incentive Theory

People are motivated by external rewards and to avoid negative consequences.

Instinct

Theory that behaviors and motivation are driven by innate, biological tendencies - or - their instincts.

Lewin's Motivational Conflict Theory (all parts)

The different types of Conflicts:

Approach-Approach - choices when people are faced with two or more desirable options.

Avoidance-Avoidance - When people are forced to choose between two or more undesirable options.

Approach-Avoidance - When a single goal has both good and bad parts, leading to internal struggles of pro vs con.

Sensation Seeking Theory (all parts)

People who have varying desires for stimulation:

thrill/adventure seeking - desire for physically thrilling activities.

Experience seeking - desire to engage in a broad range of experiences.

Disinhibition - Having a preference for activities that involve a lack of restraint.

Boredom Susceptibility - The tendency to be easily bored and seek stimulation to counter it.

Cognitive Appraisal

To determine if a situation is important or not

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

A theory that facial expressions can influence our emotional experiences (our sensory feedback from facial muscles can trigger emotions).

Broaden-and-Build theory of emotion

Theory that positive emotions can help people grow in positive ways.