SC 211 Earth and Space - Test 2

Tectonic movement: Types of deformation

1. Fault

2. Folding

Fault

• A fracture surface which has had motion

• Abrupt ending and displacement of sediments

Types of faults

1. Normal: hanging wall slips downward relative to the footwall

2. Reverse: hanging wall moving upward relative to the footwall

3. Strike-slip: rock masses moving horizontally

Footwall: underneath the fault line

Hanging wall: above fault line

Fault scarps

Cliffs along normal or reverse faults

Folding

Caused by slow continuous movement

Types of folding

1. Syncline: trough - fold downward

2. Anticline: arch - fold upward

Volcanic mountains

• Come produced by volcanic deposits

• Mauna Ka

gunung paling tinggi di Hawaii and North America, lbih tinge dri Everest klo dihitung dri bawa air laut

Fault-block mountains

1. Formed by normal and reverse faults

2. Teton mountains (contoh pegunungan)

Folded mountains

1. Folding of continental (formed Karena)

2. Rocky mountains (contoh pegunungan)

Continental drift

• The shape of plates and sediments indicates there was once supercontinent, Pangea

• Pangea broke apart into Laurasia and Gondwana

dulu bumi ada 1 tanah api continentnya drift apart

• These changes occurred during the flood

Continental drift: the flood - Catastrophic Plate Tectonics

1. Rapid movements of continental and oceanic crust producing tsunamis and global erosion sedimentation (krn ada rapid mantle movement)

2. Blankets of water-lain, extensive fossil-bearing sedimentary packages across the continents

buktinya banyak marine creatures buried with dinosaurs

Antonio Sneider proposed continents separating because of the flood

Wegener proposed continents were once connected in a single supercontinent, Pangaea, before breaking apart

Antonio sneider

proposed continents separating because of the flood

(Alfred) Wegener

suggesting continents were once connected in a single supercontinent, Pangaea, before breaking apart

Plate tectonics: Lithosphere

1. Crust and outermost part of the mantle

2. Rigid

Plate tectonics: Asthenosphere

dibawah lithosphere, asthenia = weak

1. Soft rock below the lithosphere in the upper mantle

2. Solid rock that flow (kyk silly putty)

carries the lithosphere on top while it flow, hear within the core drags the continent apart

The seafloor spreading hypothesis

• Very young (formed during the flood)

• Features that indicate the ocean floors have spread out

Features that indicate the ocean flows have spread out

1. Mid-ocean ridges (divergent)
   underwater (volcanic) mountain chain.

2. Trenches (convergent)
   deepest trench everest gbkl keliatan dari atas air, convergent = traveling towards each other

3. Island arcs (convergent)
   island formed from volcanoes

4. Magnetic ridges (divergent)
   seafloor spread showed by ridges (magnetic minerals solidifies) evidencing that the magnetic field (north & south) have changed

Plate tectonics

• Study of crustal movement as a result of ocean floor expansion

• Lithosphere is broken into 7 major plates

Plate tectonics: the lithosphere

1. Oceanic: basalt (denser, heavier than granite)

2. Continental: granite

Plate collisions

1. Oceanic continental plate collision

2. Oceanic-oceanic plate collision

3. Continental-continental plate collision

Plate collision - oceanic continental plate collision

• Subduction zones

when collide, oceanic slides underneath

Plate collision - oceanic-oceanic plate collision

• Island arcs
  which one is older = further than the sea floor is older, the older is more compact and has more time to cool = will subduct (slide under)

Plate collision - continental-continental plate collisions

• Folded mountains
  from 3 types of mountain, folded mountains are formed from continental-continental collisions,

Plate tectonics: Transform faults

• San Andreas faults
  a special variety of a strike slip fault: occurs when two plates slip against each other

Plate tectonics: The future

1. Book’s perspective: Continents will gradually change

2. Biblical perspective: The earth will never see the same type of crustal changes that we see evidence of

będą karena the global flood gabakal kejadian lagi

(Georges) Cuvier

dia French scientist

1. Studies fossils

2. Concluded catastrophes had killed out each successive fossil layer

3. New creatures were created supernaturally

Hutton

dia Scottish Geologis

1. “I see no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end”

2. Used vast amount of time to explain away special creation

Lyell

tulis one of the first geology book “Principles of Geology”

1. “Explain the former changes of the earth’s surface by forces now in operation”

2. Uniformitarianism
   “The present is the key to understanding the past”

Darwin

1. Theory of evolution
   provided the mechanism of evolution

2. Allowed a supernatural creation of the creatures in the fossil record to be discarded

Rock formation: Principles of reading the rocks

1. Lowest is oldest

2. Beds were laid horizontally

3. Movement took place after being laid

4. Igneous intrusions are younger
   karena in order to be an igneous intrusion, there has to be something to intrude

Rock formation: Unconformity

An irregular surface, separation two series of rocks

Unconformity: Evolutionary perspective

Evolutionary perspective: a significant time gap int he rock record where sediment was not deposited or was eroded

Unconformity: Biblical perspective

Sediments were laid down by the flood from different areas and cut through floodwaters

Biblical perspective: bukti flood

• Deep and wide erosion

• Marine animals far above sea level and throughout continents

• Sand carried across continents

Radiometric dating - Radiometric decay

1. A clock based on radioactive decay

2. Change of parent element into a daughter element

3. Happens at a particular rate (Half-life)

4. By comparing the parent element to the daughter element, a date is assigned

5. Organic material uses C-14 dating

6. Other rocks use Rb-Sr, U-Pb, K-Ar

Radiometric decay: organic material dating

C-14 dating

Radiometric decay: other rocks dating

Rb-Sr, U-Pb, K-Ar

Radiometric dating - Assumptions

1. Assume constant rate of decay

2. Assume nothing comes into or leaves the system

3. Assume no daughter element present at beginning

4. Assume initial conditions can be predicted

5. All of these assumptions are contrary to natural world observations

Radiometric decay - Testing the ages

1. Radiometric data never used on sedimentary rock surrounding fossils or on fossils presumed to be older than 60,000 years
   a. All fossils ever tested have 14C
   b. Implications: all fossils are younger than 60,000 years

2. Rocks of known ages measures significantly older than what they are
   a. Implication: daughter element present as the beginning
   b. Measured ages cannot be trusted

Fossils

Organisms buried in rock layers (permineralization)

95% of fossils are marine creatures

Organisms buried in rock layers through the process of…

Permineralization

Fossils - shows progressive change through the rock layers

Complexity seems to decrease in rock layers

The Geologic Time Scale - Extinction

1. One type of organism rapidly decreases to be replaced by another (ini evolutionist view)

2. Indicates a change in location as the floodwaters prevailed
   one extinction event, but ada different layers krn floodnya ga cmn 1 hari

The Geologic Time Scale - Periods

1. Times between the extinction

2. Similar creatures that remain unchanged that abruptly end in the next period (evolutionist view)

3. Indicated the life found in specific regions of the pre-flood world (biblical view)

Geologic time

Eon → Era → Period → Epoch → Age

Order of the earth / flood history

1. Precambrian time

2. Paleozoic era

3. Mezazoic era

4. Cenozoic

Ecological zones

layers nunjukin dmn organism lived, and then buried (dasar laut ke gunung”)

Earth History / Flood History - Precambrian Time

• Mostly vacant rock with occasional microscopic bacteria

• Rock deposited before the flood
  cambrian explosion

Cambrian explosion

evidence of the flood against evolutionist

Earth History / Flood History - Paleozoic Era

• Marine invertebrates, plants, and small land animals

tpi gaada tanda” mata evolusi (lgsg muncul tanpa transitional)

• Creatures buried early in the flood

Earth History / Flood History - Mezazoic Era

• Dinosaurs, small mammals

• Asteroid impact

• Accompanying volcanic activity

• Creatures buried when the flood started covering the land
  Coelacanth: Transitional form?

Coelacanth

ikan yg dipercaya transitional form evolusi krn ada bones di fins (transitional dri fins ke legs), tpi ikannya diketemuin dan ga punah

Cenozoic era

A. Tectonic disturbance

mountains rising, valley sinking, continents shifting into place

B. Large meals, birds

kuda bisa lari kenceng ke tempat tinggi, burung bisa terbang, makanya matinya lebih lama banding dinosaurs

C. Final stages of earth being covered in water

ketemu wooly mammoth di layer ini

Human History - Evolutionary perspective

Humans have gradually gotten more advanced in their growth
buktinya ketemu lukisan” di goa, humans lived in caves after the flood karena dingin (evolutionist blg ini jaman ice age)

Human history - shows growth of civilization since the flood

cave drawings buktiin kalo humans ga gitu primitive (referring ke lukisan dri ice age era)

Atmosphere

Envelope of gases around the earth

gasses have mass, we are pressed by the air pressure that surrounds us

Hydrosphere

The total amount of water on earth

Composition of air in the atmosphere

1. Hemisphere (troposphere to mesosphere)
   1. Nitrogen N2
   2. Oxygen O2
   3. Argon Ar
   4. Carbon dioxide Co2

2. Thermosphere
   Single oxygen atoms

In the homosphere: Nitrogen

• N2

• 78% of the modern atmosphere composition

• standard atmosphere pressure: 14.7 psi

In the homosphere: Oxygen

• O2

• 21% of the modern atmosphere composition

In the homosphere: Argon

• Ar

• <1% of the modern atmosphere composition

In the homosphere: Carbon dioxide

• Co2
  <1% of the modern atmosphere condition, ada untuk stabilize

Regions of the atmosphere

1. Troposphere

2. Stratosphere

3. Mesosphere

4. Thermosphere

Regions of the atmosphere - Troposphere

1. Extends up to 7 miles (11 km) above surface

2. Contains the earth’s weather
   dia moisture banyak makanya ada tornado dkk
   increase altitude, decrease temperature (makin tinggi makin dingin)

3. Temperatures decrease to -55C

terminal velocity 120 miles per hour

higher, hotter

Regions of the atmosphere - Statosphere

1. Extends from 11 km to 10 km (30 miles) above the surface

2. No clouds or weather

3. Ozone in the upper layer traps UV light

4. This ozone causes a temperature rise to 10C

higher, hotter / makin tinggi, makin panas

Stratosphere: UV light trapped in ozone

• UVA - least damaging

• UVB - causes burns

• UVC - most damaging

Regions of the atmosphere - Mesosphere

1. Extends from 50 to 80 km (50 miles)

2. Temperature decrease to -75C

3. Coldest layer of the atmosphere
   walopun cold, meteor burns up in this layer

least studied layer of the atmosphere
higher, colder / makin tinggi, makin dingin

Regions of the atmosphere - Thermosphere

1. Extends from 80 km to 600 km (400 miles)

2. Contains the ionosphere
   a. Layers of oxygen ions
   b. Absorbs high-energy radiation from the sun
   c. Produces auroras

3. Temperature increases to 2000C (3600F)

   higher, colder / makin tinggi, makin dingin

Ionosphere (contained in the thermosphere)

a. Layers of oxygen ions
b. Absorbs high-energy radiation from the sun
c. Produces auroras

Figure 4.18

Figure 4.29

Figure 6.11

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.17

Figure 9.11

Figure 9.23

Figure 17.6