IB Psychology Paper 3

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data

QUALITATIVE DATA:

- cannot be quantified

- based off observations

-highly descriptive

- gathered through direct interaction with participants through 1-1 or group interviews

-data consists of text (transcripts or field notes)

- open- ended and flexible to interpretation

- "rich thick" data

Strengths:

- provides rich data- in depth descriptions of individual experiences based on concepts, meanings and explanations

-useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues (illness, sexuality, homelessness...)

- explains phenomena

- identify and evaluate factors that contribute to solving a problem

- generate new ideas and theories to explain problems

- people are studies in their own environment which increases validity

Limitations:

- time consuming

- data analysis can be difficult, no clear analysis strategy

- interpretation of data may be subjective (reflexivity can help minimize this)

QUANTITATIVE DATA:

- number based

- easy to summarize and analyze

- statistical tests can be done to come to conclusions

Representational generalization

- findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study

- qualitative research normally involves small samples that are not selected to be statistically representative

- non- structured interview methods may be used (questions are not pre-arranged)

-this makes it difficult to generalize findings

- however it is argued that generalization is possible if evidence from other studies confirms the findings

Inferential generalization

-Findings can be applied to setting outside the setting of the study

-also called "transferability" or "external validity"

- whether or not the findings can be transferred to another setting depends on the depth of the description of research and phenomenon

- inferences (logical conclusions) may be made but will rest as a hypothesis until supported or disproven by further evidence

Theoretical generalization

- theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theories

-findings from the study may contribute to wider social theory

Informed consent

-informed consent should always be obtained

- when deception is used informed consent is not usually obtained to maintain the validity of the data

Things to include in the informed consent form:

- participation is voluntary

- sufficient information about the study should be given (who is conducting it, how the data will be used, what the research requires of the participants e.g times, topics to be addressed)

- participants give consent to take part in the study

-under 16 year olds need consent given from their parents

Protecting participants from harm

- researchers should take preventative measures in all research to avoid harming participants physically or psychologically

- especially in sensitive topics such as sexual abuse, domestic violence, addiction....

- when using qualitative methods such as in depth interviews participants may disclose very private and sensitive information

- before agreeing to participate they should have a clear understanding of the topics addressed

- researchers must approach sensitive issues through clear and direct questions

- if participants show discomfort, the experimenter should consider stopping the interview

Deception

-Researcher might not want the participant to know the exact aim of a study because it might impact the results

- deception should generally not be used because it can be considered unethical

-deception must be explained to all participants at the end of the study

Anonymity and confidentiality

-the identity of the participants should not be known outside the research team, but in cases where snowball sampling has been used this cannot be done and participants should be informed

- confidentiality means that research data will not be known to anyone outside the study

-the researcher may have to change minor details in the report to avoid the possibility if the participants being recognized

-confidentiality also refers to how the data was collected, if observations have been videotaped or archived it can be difficult to maintain anonymity, so they should be destroyed after transcripts have been made

Debriefing

-the true aims and purposes of the research must be revealed to the participants

- any deception should be revealed and justified

- all participants should leave the study without stress

Purposive sampling

-targets a particular group of people

- The researcher decides early on which criteria should be used for sampling

-Participants are chosen on the basis of particular characteristics that will help the researcher to explore the research topic.

Snowball sampling

-researcher simply asks participants in the study if they know other potential participants

-can be used to find people with required characteristics that are rare or hard to find (homeless people, people with specific disorders...)

Strengths:

Cost efficient because the researcher does not have to use expensive and time consuming techniques to find participants

Limitation:

Very difficult to avoid bias in the sample and confidentiality is a concern

Convenience sampling

-selects a particular group of people who happen to be available

- asked if they would like to participate

Effects of participant expectations and researcher bias

Participant expectations (reactivity):

-the participants ideas of the research and the researcher which can affect the trustworthiness of thr data

- if the participant feels they have to behave in certain ways in order to please the researcher this will affect the value of the data in a negative way

Researcher bias:

- researcher's own beliefs and ideas may be shown within the data and may determine the research process

-important that participants perceptions, beliefs and understanding of social processes must be given priority

-way to minimize researcher bias is reflexivity throughout the research process

Define credibility

Credibility involves establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research (internal validity).

Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/ trustworthiness of the data

Triangulation: cross-checking of information and conclusions in research brought by the use of multiple procedures or sources, if there is agreement between the procedures of sources there is corroboration of the interpretation of the data.

Method triangulation:

involves comparing data that comes from the use of different methods

Data triangulation:

comparing data that comes from data gathered from other participants or other sources

Researcher triangulation:

involves the use of several observers, interviewers or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation

Theory triangulation:

involves looking at the data using different theoretical perspectives

Explain reflexivity

Reflexivity:

allows the researcher to reflect on ways in which bias may occur, by acknowledging that their background and beliefs can influence the way research is conducted.

Personal reflexivity:

involves reflecting on the ways in which the researcher's values, beliefs, experiences, interests and political commitments have influenced the research

Epistemological reflexivity:

related to how data was gathered, limited understanding of a particular group of people can restrict the amount of data gathered

Evaluate semi-structured interviews

-involves preparation of an interview guide that lists themes that should be explored

- serves as a checklist during the interview

-makes sure that the same information is obtained from each interview

-flexibility of the wording of the questions used

-uses closed (specified) and open minded questions (freely)

-encourages two-way communication

- diaries and other pieces of writing may be used in analysis as well

Strengths:

-better to use semi-structured interviews for sensitive issues as it allows the elaboration on some topics

-flexibility of open-ended approaches and structural approach which enables to researcher to either clarify or expand on areas of interest

-compatible with many methods of data analysis allows for analysis in different ways

-sets out themes to explore

Limitations:

-focus on individual processes

-One-on-one situation can be considered artificial which calls into question ecological validity

-reliability difficulties

-researcher and subject bias (researchers will ask targeted questions to prove their hypothesis)

Focus group interviews

-normally consists of 6-10 people, if there are more it may be difficult for everyone to participate

-members of the group have common characteristics which is relevant to the topic of investigation

-researcher has the role of the facilitator

-participants are supposed to interact as if they would outside of the study, it helps if they already know each other

-facilitator preferably uses open- ended questions so the group can interact and expand on each others ideas

Strengths:

-quick and convenient way to collect data from several individuals

-provides natural setting, maybe higher ecological validity than 1-1

- useful for exploring insight into what they think, how they think, and why they think that way

- can highlight cultural values or group norms

Limitations:

-not appropriate for all questions (sensitive)

-conformity

Narrative interviews

-based on the assumption that humans are story tellers

-constructing narratives becomes a way of understand the world and oneself

-narratives should not be seen as true representations of the world but rather as individual interpretations of it

-usually constructed like a story, beginning, middle and end

-mix of facts and interpretations

Strengths:

-valuable means of exploring the complexity of individuals experiences

-how these experiences relate to wider social and cultural contexts

- can be used with everyday people

Limitations:

-results in an enormous amount of data and can be time consuming to transcribe and analyze

Discuss considerations involved before an interview

Data collection method and establishing interview guide

Based on the aim, time and resources available

Choosing the right interviewer

Consider gender, age, ethnicity, language

participants must feel comfortable

Sampling and sampling method

Depends on the aim, however in qualitative research purposive sample is often chosen (focuses on a specific group)

Data recording

Transcription of the data

Ethical considerations

reflexivity

Discuss considerations involved during an interview

Establish a rapport (trusting and open relationship with participant)

Important that interviewer demonstrates ethical conduct

Make participant feel comfortable

Interviewer should make sure the recorder (if used) is placed in in a position where it can record the conversation/discussion clearly.

Interviewer should use an active listening technique (seem interested and being engaged)

Discuss considerations involved after an interview

Participant should be debriefed

Post-interview situation is important and should ensure that the participant is fully informed and feels confident.

Researcher should accept the request if a participant would like to withdraw some information after having read the transcript of the conversation

Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis on interview transcripts

Higher level themes:

Lower level themes:

Evaluate participant observations

The researcher becomes a part of the target group under investigation

The focus of the study is on natural behavior in its natural context

It aims to obtain close and intimate relationship/bond with participants through personal involvement with people in their own environment

The researcher must be able to initiate and maintain relationships with the people under investigation

Strengths

-Generates in-depth and detailed information of a topic (which cannot be studied by other methods)

-Useful when exploring socially sensitive issues (holistic approach)

-Good method to avoid researcher bias- the aim is to understand social processes through the perception of participants

Limitations

-Data collections and analyzing is very time consuming

-often groups are small- difficult to generalize

-Highly invasive research method- can influence people's lives

-The research may lose objectivity

-difficult to keep a balance between involvement and detachment

Evaluate non participant observations

The researcher doesn't get involved with the group

Merely observes and records the behavior in the setting

Can take place in a naturalistic setting and the researchers record natural behavior

The researcher will inform the participants about the observation in general terms

Not about the exact behavior being studied

Can be used to study the behavior in children or a parent-child interaction

Strengths

-Easier to collect data (than participant observations)

The researcher can observe natural behavior

-A useful way for observing the behavior in small groups

-can be crossed-checked to establish credibility

Limitations

-There's a risk that the presence of the researcher will influence data (reactivity)

-Deception may be necessary to avoid reactivity

-coding for observational data may be difficult if it is not a structured observation

-Analysis can be time consuming and costly

Evaluate naturalistic observations

Data are collected by the researcher who observe and record how people behave (or animals)

The aim is to collect information in a natural environment to provide an account of the interactions in a particular social group

Researcher often spends a long time 'in the field' to understand the naturalistic environment of the participants

Notes are taken, for analysis

Observations in the field can be complemented with eg. examples interview data and quantitative data

Strengths

-The research can observe natural behavior in a natural environment

-It increases ecological validity (preferred in qualitative research)

-Can be combined with data from other qualitative methods ( triangulation to increase credibility)

-Observational data can be crossed-checked with other researchers to establish credibility

Limitations

-Ethical issues are involved if the naturalistic observation is covert

-analysis of data can be time consuming and costly

especially if the observation is unstructured

Evaluate overt observations

Participants know they participate in the research

The quality of the data depends on the researcher's relationship with participants

Strengths

-Participants can be informed about the topic and give informed consent (ethical)

-Data collection can be triangulated with interview data

Limitations

-Researcher may lose objectivity and become too involved

-The researcher's presence is a potential source of bias

-Hawthorn effect- participants know they are being studied and thus might change their behavior

Evaluate covert observations

Participants don't know they participate in the research

The research usually has to make up a story to cover his presence

Strengths

-It makes it possible to study groups that cannot be studied otherwise

-Access to difficult settings

-There is limited or no reactivity since participants don't know about the research

Limitations

-The participants are not informed about the research

-Do not give an informed consent

-Can be dangerous if participants find out about the study

-Ethical issues

Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation

Methodological considerations

overt/covert, participant/non-participant and how choice of method could influence the data

Ethical considerations

Informed consent:

everything other than covert observations

Debriefing participants after the study/ data collection

Ensure anonymity

Sampling method:

Sampling depends on the research topic

In qualitative data, purposive sample is often chosen because it focuses on a specific group of people, or specific situation/ condition or environment

Data recording:

Decisions of how to make the field notes in covert observations (usually a field diary)

In overt observations- data collection is expected by participants but the researcher should decide what to note down

In sensitive areas videos are audiotapes cannot be taken since it will reveal the participants' identity

Observer characteristics

Match observer to the target group. (A female observer will not fit in, in a street of male gangster)

can't be covert

Researcher should 'blend in'

Degree of involvement in the group

In overt observations, being involved may be rather superficial

Objectivity of researcher

The researcher often stays a long time 'in the field' and could become more subjective with time

Adv. if more researchers work in the field (triangulation)

the researcher should be attentive to potential biases

Credibility checks and reflexivity could control for this

analysis of data

The researcher should decide how to analyse data from observations and field notes

Evaluate the use of case studies in research

Strengths:

Multiple data sources increase data (triangulation)

Case studies are sensitive to context and are a way to see how people make meaning out of their lives.

A case study might be the only way to investigate a certain topic/phenomena

They help researchers come up with new theories.

Good ecological validity.

Limitations:

Poor population validity if it is intrinsic

Ethical complications

Possible lack of validity

Time-consuming

Researcher bias could be a problem (expectations)

There is a risk of participant expectancy since both the researcher and participant are involved

Sources of evidence can be hard to obtain

Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group

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Discuss how researchers analyze data obtained in observational research

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