Studied by 16 people
how are Genes, DNA, and Chromosomes related?
Chromosomes are made of DNA and Genes are made of Chromosomes.
DNA
Made of subunits called nucleotides, Have Deoxyribose as their sugar, And is the shape of a double helix
RNA
Made up of subunits called nucleotides, Has ribose as their sugar, and its shape depends on the type of RNA.
Nucleotide structure
Made up of a sugar, phosphate group, and a base nitrogen.
Base pair rules for DNA
Adenine pairs with Thymine, Guanine pairs with cytosine.
base pair rules for RNA
Adenine pairs with uracil, Guanine pairs with cytosine.
DNA Helicase
this enzyme binds to a replication origin on the DNA and begins unwinding the DNA helix by breaking hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
topoisomerase
Works ahead of the Helicase cutting the sugar phosphate backbones of one or both DNA strands.
single stranded binding proteins
Binds to the single strands of DNA at the fork and prevents them from rejoining.
RNA primase
this enzyme builds short complementary segments of RNA (primers) on template strands
DNA polymerase III
Adds Nucleotides at the end of RNA Primers.
Nucleotide Triphosphates
provides energy needed by DNa poly III to catalyze the senthesis reaction that adds a DNa nucleotide to the newly forming strand
leading strand
DNA strand built in the direction of the replication fork
lagging strand
built in the opposite direction of the replication fork
DNA polymerase I
removes every RNA nucleotide in each primer and replaces them with the appropriate Nucleotides
DNA ligase
joins unattached sections of DNA by phosphodiester bonds between them
Exonucleus
proofreaders during DNA polymerisation in DNA replication
DNa replication
the process by which the genome's DNA is copied in cells.
Okazaki fragments
short sections of DNA formed at the time of discontinuous synthesis of the lagging strand during replication of DNA
mRNA
singlestranded, carries instructions from nucleus to robosomes . Is located in the nucleus .
tRNA
hair pin shape, brings amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis. located in cytoplasm .
rRNa
ribosomes are made of rRNa and proteins. located in the nucleus.
does translation/Protein synthesis happen
happens in ribosome in cytoplasm or rough ER
what type of nucleic acids are involved in translation?
amino acids
what is a mutation?
Changes in DNA that affects an organism’s physical characteristics.
Asexual reproduction
Offspring created without fusion of gametes.
Genes come from ONE individual
Sexual reproduction
Offspring created created by union of male and female gametes (egg and sperm)
type of cells
Diploid, Haploid
Haploid
when the egg and sperm cells fuse in the process of fertilization
Diploid
containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
advantages of sexual reproduction
genetic variation and ability to adapt
purpose of meiosis
to produce gametes, the sperm and eggs, with half of the genetic complement of the parent cells.
crossing over
a cellular process that happens during meiosis when chromosomes of the same type are lined up
what is produced at the end of crossing over?
a hybrid chromosome with a unique pattern of genetic material
where do offspring get their chromosomes
they obtain half from each parent
boy and girl karyotype
boy and girl karyotype
nondisjunction
the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division
genotype
the genetic makeup of an organism
phenotype
the set of observable characteristics of an individual
Gregor Mendel’s contribution
he discovered the 3 laws of inheritance
Gregor Mendel’s 3 principles from his work.
the Law of Dominance and Uniformity, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Dominance an Uniformity
some alleles, which are variants of a particular gene found at the same chromosomal locus or location, are dominant over the other alleles for a given gene.
Law of Segregation
alleles segregate randomly into gametes-alleles of one trait had no influence of another.
Law of Independent Assortment.
the alleles of a gene for one trait segregate independently of the alleles of a gene for another trait
complete dominance
in the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele in heterozygous conditions
incomplete dominance
results from a cross in which each parental contribution is genetically unique and gives rise to progeny whose phenotype is intermediate
codominance
a type of inheritance in which two versions (alleles) of the same gene are expressed separately to yield different traits in an individual
multiple alleles
Three or more possible phenotypes or genotypes for the same trait.
sexlinked inheritance
characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes
Taxonomy
science of classifying living things
How to make scientific name
using the system that describes the genus and species of the organism. The first word is the genus and the second is the species. The first word is capitalized and the second is not.
what are the 6 kingdoms
Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista
kingdom Plantae
Multiellular,Autotrophic through photosynthesis.Have cell walls made off cellulose and large central vacuole
Kingdom Animalia
Muticellular, 0 cell walls, They are heterotrophic, Aqutic and terrestrial.
Kingdom Fungi
Eukaryotic,Multi/unicellular. Heterotrophic, Have cell walls made of Chitin. Terrestrial and by dead damp stuff
Kingdom Eubacteria
Unicellular,Prokaryotic. Asexually through binary fission. Has Peptidoglycan in their cell wall.
Kingdom Archaebacteria
unicellular,Prokaryotic. Have cell walls with 0 Peptidoglycans. Found in extreme enviornments.
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom of things that dont belong in any other kingdoms.
Some have cell walls some dont. Both heterotrophic and photosynthetic, Uni/Multicellular, sexually and asexually. Found in aquatic and terrestrial.
carl Linnaeus
"Father of Taxonomy"; established his classification of living things;
why have changes been made to the taxonomic group over the years?
scientist make discoveries.
first life forms on earth and why?
Prokaryotes because they could perform photosynthesis.
order of major vertrate groups appearance in the fossil record
Fishes, amphibians, mammals and reptiles
major evolutionary events:
photosynthesis, amniotic egg, exoskeleton, first eukaryotes, first vertibrates, first cells, earths formation, humans
natural selection
a process whereby species which have traits that enable them to adapt in an environment survive and reproduce, and then pass on their genes to the next generation
how do mutations occur that lead to natural selection?
If a trait is advantageous and helps the individual survive and reproduce
causes of evolutionary change
mutation, non-random mating, gene flow, and natural selection
what does being “fittest” in natural selection mean
organisms best adjusted to their environment are the most successful in surviving and reproducing
evolution
the process by which species adapt over time in response to their changing environment
3 types of natural selection
directional selection, stabilizing selection, or disruptive selection
Directional selection
occurs when individuals with traits on one side of the mean in their population survive better or reproduce more than those on the other
stabilizing selection
tends to remove the more severe phenotypes, resulting in the reproductive success of the norm or average phenotypes
disruptive selection
when more extreme phenotypes (or genotypes) within a population have a fitness advantage over intermediate individuals
what is ecology
the scientific study of interactions among organisms with each other and with the environment
Primary succession
on land where no soil previously existed
secondary succession
occurs in an area where soil exists,but has been damaged or disturbed(EX- a change to an existing community that does not affect the soil.
producer
Autotrophs- produce energy by capturing sunlight or using chemicals(EX- plants,algae,and some bacti
consumer
Heterotrophs-organisms that consume other organisms for food(EX-rabbit,cat,fish
goals of competition
to survive and produce the mos offspring
Mutualism
a type of symbiotic relationship where all species involved benefit from their interactions
parasitism
Association between two different organisms wherein one benefits at the expense of the other
commensalism
a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter
predation
one organism kills and consumes another
food chain
a hierarchical series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food
food web
big web of food chains
energy pyramid
Diagram that shows the amount of energy stored in trophic levels(shows how energy moves through levels and how food chain works.)
10% law
90% of the energy left behind at each level
limiting factors
density dependant, density independant
density dependent
any force that affects the size of a population of living things in response to the density of the population
density independent
earth quakes floods tornadoes ect
abiotic
nonliving things
biotic
living organisms
Niche
the entire amount of conditions that an organism can endure
habbitat
where things live
invasive species
brought to a new habitat by human means.They could kill off entire species or help them
coevolution
back and forth evolutionary adjustments between species. it produces balance between communities.
order of levels of organization
Individual/species, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biome, Biosphere.
erosion
in carbon cycle when carbon dioxide is returned to the ground and limestone is broken down
combustion
burning of fossil fuels in carbon cycle
nitrogen fixation
bacteria combine hydrogen and nitrogen to make a amonea in the nitrgoen cycle.
percipitation
returning waqter back to earth in water cycle
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