CIS US History sem 2 unit 2 review

Panama Canal Zone

Who:
The United States, led by Theodore Roosevelt, along with the newly independent nation of Panama. The U.S. military, engineers, and thousands of laborers (many from the Caribbean) were directly involved in construction and maintenance.

What:
The Panama Canal Zone was a 10-mile-wide strip of land across Panama that the United States controlled after helping Panama gain independence from Colombia in 1903. Within this zone, the U.S. built and operated the Panama Canal, a major engineering project connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Where:
Isthmus of Panama in Central America, a narrow land bridge between North and South America.

When:
Control established in 1903; canal construction occurred from 1904 to 1914.

Why:
The U.S. wanted a faster and more efficient trade and military route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Without the canal, ships had to travel around the southern tip of South America, which was long and dangerous. Roosevelt also aimed to expand U.S. global influence and demonstrate American power.

How it is significant:
The Panama Canal Zone is a key example of U.S. imperialism and interventionism in the early 20th century. It showed the U.S. was willing to influence or support political change (Panama’s independence) to achieve strategic goals. Economically, the canal revolutionized global trade by drastically reducing travel time for ships. Militarily, it strengthened the U.S. Navy by allowing faster movement between oceans. At the same time, it created long-term resentment in Latin America, shaping future tensions over U.S. involvement in the region.

Roosevelt Corollary

Who:
Announced by Theodore Roosevelt as part of U.S. foreign policy.

What:
The Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine stating that the United States had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability, especially if those countries faced financial instability or political disorder.

Where:
Applied to Latin America and the Caribbean, especially countries like the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Nicaragua.

When:
1904.

Why:
European nations were threatening to intervene in Latin American countries to collect debts. Roosevelt wanted to prevent European involvement in the Western Hemisphere while also asserting U.S. authority. He believed the U.S. should act as an “international police power.”

How it is significant:
The Roosevelt Corollary marked a major shift in U.S. foreign policy by turning the U.S. into an active enforcer in the Western Hemisphere, rather than just a passive defender. It justified repeated U.S. interventions in Latin America, expanding American influence but also increasing resentment toward the U.S. This policy helped establish the U.S. as a dominant regional power and set a precedent for future foreign interventions.

Lusitania

Who:
The British passenger ship was sunk by a German submarine (U-boat); those killed included nearly 1,200 civilians, including 128 Americans.

What:
The Sinking of the RMS Lusitania was a German attack on a civilian ship during World War I as part of its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare.

Where:
Off the coast of Ireland in the Atlantic Ocean.

When:
May 7, 1915.

Why:
Germany aimed to weaken Britain by cutting off supplies and targeting ships in the Atlantic. Although the Lusitania carried civilians, Germany suspected it also transported war materials.

How it is significant:
The sinking of the Lusitania significantly shifted American public opinion against Germany. While the U.S. did not immediately enter World War I, the attack increased tensions and contributed to growing support for intervention. It also raised concerns about the safety of civilians in modern warfare and highlighted the risks of neutrality in a global conflict. The event became a major step toward U.S. entry into the war in 1917.

Espionage Act

Who:
Passed by the U.S. Congress and signed by Woodrow Wilson during World War I. It targeted anti-war activists, socialists, and individuals suspected of disloyalty.

What:
The Espionage Act of 1917 made it illegal to interfere with military operations, obstruct the draft, or support enemies of the United States during wartime.

Where:
United States.

When:
1917.

Why:
The government wanted to maintain national unity and prevent opposition to the war effort, especially as the U.S. implemented a military draft. Officials feared that dissent could weaken the country’s ability to fight effectively.

How it is significant:
The Espionage Act is significant because it limited civil liberties, especially freedom of speech, during wartime. It led to the arrest and imprisonment of individuals like Eugene V. Debs for speaking out against the war. The law demonstrated how the government can expand its power in times of crisis, often at the expense of individual rights. It also set a precedent for future debates over the balance between national security and civil liberties in the United States.

Sedition Act

Who:
Passed by the U.S. Congress and signed by Woodrow Wilson during World War I. It targeted journalists, activists, socialists, and ordinary citizens who criticized the government or the war effort.

What:
The Sedition Act of 1918 expanded the earlier Espionage Act by making it illegal to speak, write, or publish anything disloyal, profane, or abusive about the U.S. government, Constitution, military, or flag.

Where:
United States.

When:
1918, during the final year of World War I.

Why:
The government wanted to ensure complete national unity during wartime and feared that criticism or dissent could weaken morale, disrupt the military, or undermine support for the war.

How it is significant:
The Sedition Act is significant because it represents one of the most extreme restrictions on freedom of speech in U.S. history. Thousands of people were arrested or prosecuted simply for expressing anti-war opinions. It demonstrated how civil liberties can be suppressed during times of national crisis and contributed to a broader climate of fear and intolerance. This environment helped lead into the Red Scare, where suspicion of dissenters and radicals continued even after the war ended.

NAACP

Who:
Founded by a group of Black and white reformers, including W. E. B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, and others committed to racial equality.

What:
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is a civil rights organization dedicated to ending racial discrimination, segregation, and violence against African Americans, primarily through legal challenges and advocacy.

Where:
Founded in New York City, but operates nationwide across the United States.

When:
1909.

Why:
The organization was created in response to widespread racial injustice during the early 20th century, including lynching, segregation laws (Jim Crow), disenfranchisement, and the failure of the federal government to protect Black citizens.

How it is significant:
The NAACP is significant because it became one of the most influential organizations in the fight for civil rights in the United States. Unlike some other movements at the time, it focused heavily on legal strategies, challenging discriminatory laws in court. This approach eventually led to major victories, including later Supreme Court decisions like Brown v. Board of Education. The NAACP represents a long-term, organized effort to achieve racial equality and demonstrates how activism and the legal system can be used to bring about social change.

Tulsa Massacre

Who:
White mobs attacked Black residents of the Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Victims were primarily African American business owners, families, and workers. Local authorities often failed to intervene effectively and in some cases supported the white mob.

What:
The Tulsa Race Massacre was a violent attack in which white mobs looted and burned homes, businesses, and churches in a thriving Black community, killing dozens (and possibly hundreds) of people.

Where:
Greenwood District (“Black Wall Street”), Tulsa, Oklahoma.

When:
May 31–June 1, 1921.

Why:
The immediate cause was a false accusation that a Black teenager had assaulted a white woman. Deeper causes included intense racial tensions, white supremacy, and resentment toward the economic success of the Black community in Greenwood.

How it is significant:
The Tulsa Massacre is significant because it exposes the extent of racial violence and systemic racism in early 20th-century America. It showed that even prosperous Black communities were vulnerable to destruction due to racism and lack of legal protection. For decades, the event was largely ignored in mainstream history, highlighting how certain parts of history can be suppressed. Today, it is recognized as a major example of racial injustice and has influenced ongoing discussions about racial inequality and historical accountability.

Red Scare

Who:
U.S. government officials, law enforcement agencies, and American citizens who feared the spread of communism, anarchism, and radical political ideologies. Key figures included Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer.

What:
The Red Scare was a period of intense fear and suspicion of communist and radical political movements, leading to actions such as mass arrests, deportations, and surveillance of suspected radicals (notably the Palmer Raids).

Where:
United States, particularly in urban areas with large immigrant populations.

When:
First Red Scare: 1919–1920, shortly after World War I.

Why:
It was triggered by several factors, including the Russian Revolution, a wave of labor strikes in the U.S., anarchist bombings, and widespread fear that a similar revolution could occur in America.

How it is significant:
The Red Scare is significant because it led to major violations of civil liberties, including arrests without proper evidence, deportations without fair trials, and suppression of political dissent. It increased anti-immigrant sentiment and contributed to restrictive immigration laws in the 1920s. Additionally, it established a pattern of fear-driven government action that would reappear during later periods, such as the anti-communist hysteria of the Cold War (McCarthyism).

Treaty of Versailles

Who:
Negotiated by the Allied Powers after World War I, especially Woodrow Wilson (United States), David Lloyd George (Britain), and Georges Clemenceau (France). Germany had no real power in negotiations and was forced to accept the terms.

What:
The Treaty of Versailles officially ended World War I and imposed harsh penalties on Germany. These included the “war guilt clause” (accepting full responsibility for the war), heavy reparations, territorial losses, and strict military limitations. It also created the League of Nations.

Where:
Signed at the Palace of Versailles in France.

When:
1919.

Why:
The Allied nations wanted to punish Germany for causing the war and to prevent future conflicts. France in particular pushed for harsh penalties to weaken Germany, while Wilson aimed for a more moderate peace based on his Fourteen Points.

How it is significant:
The Treaty of Versailles is significant because it reshaped the global political order but also created long-term instability. The harsh terms imposed on Germany led to economic hardship, national resentment, and political instability, which contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler and World War II. Additionally, the U.S. Senate’s rejection of the treaty and refusal to join the League of Nations marked a return to isolationism, limiting America’s role in global affairs during the interwar period.

Flapper

Who:
Primarily young, middle-class women in the United States during the 1920s.

What:
Flappers were women who rejected traditional gender roles by adopting new styles and behaviors—such as wearing shorter skirts, cutting their hair into bobs, listening to jazz, smoking, drinking, and expressing greater independence.

Where:
Mostly in urban areas across the United States.

When:
1920s.

Why:
Flappers emerged due to major social changes after World War I, including increased urbanization, economic prosperity, and the passage of the 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote. These changes encouraged greater independence and freedom for women.

How it is significant:
Flappers are significant because they symbolized the changing role of women and the broader cultural transformation of the 1920s. They challenged traditional expectations of femininity and behavior, representing a shift toward modern values. This cultural change also highlighted tensions between conservative and progressive forces in society, as many older Americans viewed flappers as a threat to traditional morals.

Teapot Dome

Who:
Officials in President Warren G. Harding’s administration, especially Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall.

What:
The Teapot Dome scandal involved the secret leasing of federal oil reserves to private companies in exchange for bribes, without competitive bidding.

Where:
Teapot Dome, Wyoming (as well as other oil reserves in California).

When:
Early 1920s.

Why:
Government officials sought personal financial gain by exploiting valuable public resources and abusing their positions of power.

How it is significant:
Teapot Dome is significant because it became one of the most notorious examples of government corruption in U.S. history. It damaged public trust in the federal government and highlighted the need for greater transparency and accountability. The scandal also reflected broader concerns about the close relationship between business and government during the pro-business policies of the 1920s.

Scopes Trial

Who:
John T. Scopes (defendant), William Jennings Bryan (prosecution), and Clarence Darrow (defense attorney).

What:
The Scopes Trial was a legal case that challenged a Tennessee law banning the teaching of evolution in public schools.

Where:
Dayton, Tennessee.

When:
1925.

Why:
The case arose from a broader conflict between modern scientific ideas (like Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution) and traditional religious beliefs (creationism), particularly in more rural and conservative areas.

How it is significant:
The Scopes Trial is significant because it highlighted the cultural tensions of the 1920s between modernism and traditionalism. It showed the divide between urban, progressive Americans who supported science and rural, conservative Americans who supported religious values. Although Scopes was found guilty, the trial drew national attention and sparked ongoing debates about education, science, religion, and freedom of thought in American society.

Great Depression

Who:
The Great Depression affected virtually all Americans, including workers, farmers, business owners, and banks. Vulnerable populations like African Americans, immigrants, and rural farmers suffered the most.

What:
A severe and prolonged economic downturn marked by high unemployment, widespread poverty, bank failures, business closures, and declining industrial production.

Where:
Primarily the United States, though the economic crisis had global repercussions, especially in Europe and Latin America.

When:
1929–1939, beginning after the stock market crash and continuing throughout the 1930s.

Why:
Caused by multiple factors, including overproduction in agriculture and industry, uneven wealth distribution, over-speculation in the stock market, banking weaknesses, and declining consumer spending.

How it is significant:
The Great Depression transformed the role of the federal government in the U.S., highlighting the need for intervention to stabilize the economy. It led to widespread social hardship and reshaped political priorities, paving the way for Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. It also influenced U.S. foreign and domestic policy for decades, shaping labor reforms, social welfare programs, and economic regulation.

Stock Market Crash

Who:
Investors, speculators, banks, and ordinary Americans who bought stocks on margin (with borrowed money) were directly affected.

What:
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was a sudden and dramatic decline in stock prices, wiping out billions in wealth and triggering panic selling.

Where:
New York Stock Exchange and broader financial markets in the United States.

When:
October 1929, with the most infamous day being Black Tuesday, October 29, 1929.

Why:
The crash was caused by over-speculation, excessive buying on margin, lack of banking regulation, and panic-driven market behavior. Stocks had become grossly overvalued, and when confidence faltered, prices collapsed.

How it is significant:
The stock market crash directly triggered the Great Depression, eroding public confidence in financial institutions and exposing vulnerabilities in the U.S. economy. It highlighted the dangers of unregulated markets and speculative investment, prompting future reforms such as the Securities Act of 1933 and the creation of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

Who:
Sponsored by U.S. Senators Reed Smoot and Willis C. Hawley; signed into law by President Herbert Hoover.

What:
The Hawley-Smoot Tariff was a law that raised U.S. tariffs on thousands of imported goods in an effort to protect American businesses and farmers.

Where:
United States, with significant impact on international trade.

When:
1930, early in the Great Depression.

Why:
The government hoped the tariff would encourage Americans to buy domestic products, protect jobs, and support struggling industries and farmers.

How it is significant:
The Hawley-Smoot Tariff worsened the Great Depression by provoking retaliatory tariffs from other nations, reducing global trade, and further deepening international economic collapse. It is often cited as an example of how isolationist economic policies can backfire during a global crisis.

New Deal

Who:
Implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his administration, including agencies like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Works Progress Administration (WPA), and Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).

What:
A series of federal programs, reforms, and relief measures designed to provide economic relief, create jobs, stimulate recovery, and reform financial institutions during the Great Depression.

Where:
United States, with programs operating at the federal, state, and local levels.

When:
1933–1939 (First and Second New Deal phases).

Why:
The Great Depression required direct government intervention to address mass unemployment, poverty, and failing banks. Roosevelt’s New Deal sought to stabilize the economy, restore public confidence, and prevent future crises.

How it is significant:
The New Deal redefined the role of the federal government in American life, creating a safety net for citizens through Social Security, unemployment insurance, and labor protections. It provided millions of jobs, modernized infrastructure, and regulated financial institutions. Politically, it strengthened support for the Democratic Party and reshaped American expectations about government responsibility during economic hardship. The New Deal’s legacy continues to influence social and economic policy today.

CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps)

Who:
Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, targeting unemployed young men aged 18–25 (later expanded to 17–28), primarily from urban areas, as well as veterans and Native Americans.

What:
The CCC was a New Deal program designed to provide jobs in environmental conservation, including reforestation, soil erosion prevention, flood control, and the development of national parks.

Where:
Across the United States, including national forests, parks, and rural areas affected by environmental degradation.

When:
1933–1942, during the Great Depression.

Why:
The program aimed to combat mass unemployment among young men while addressing environmental problems like deforestation and soil erosion. It also sought to instill discipline, skills, and a sense of civic duty.

How it is significant:
The CCC is significant because it provided immediate relief to thousands of unemployed Americans while contributing to long-term environmental conservation. It helped shape the modern approach to environmental management and public works. Socially, it gave young men purpose and income, and politically, it demonstrated how the federal government could create effective, large-scale programs to address both economic and environmental challenges simultaneously.

TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority)

Who:
Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt; implemented by the federal government with engineers, planners, and local workers in the Tennessee Valley region.

What:
The TVA was a New Deal program focused on regional economic development and modernization. It built dams, provided hydroelectric power, controlled flooding, and improved navigation and infrastructure in the Tennessee Valley, one of the poorest regions in the U.S.

Where:
The Tennessee Valley, covering parts of Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia.

When:
Established in 1933.

Why:
The Tennessee Valley suffered from extreme poverty, lack of electricity, soil erosion, and flooding. The TVA aimed to modernize the region, stimulate economic growth, and provide jobs.

How it is significant:
The TVA is significant because it combined relief, recovery, and reform in one regional program. It provided jobs, electricity, and infrastructure improvements, raising living standards in a historically poor area. It also represented federal intervention in regional planning and economic development, setting a precedent for large-scale government involvement in modernizing underdeveloped areas.

AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act)

Who:
Passed under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, primarily affecting farmers in the U.S., especially in the South and Midwest.

What:
The AAA was a New Deal program that paid farmers to reduce crop production in order to raise agricultural prices. The government subsidized reduced planting of crops like cotton, corn, and wheat to help farmers earn more income.

Where:
Across the United States, particularly in major agricultural regions.

When:
Enacted in 1933; later modified after being declared unconstitutional in 1936, then replaced with similar measures.

Why:
Farm prices had plummeted during the Great Depression due to overproduction, causing widespread farm bankruptcies. The AAA sought to stabilize prices, restore farmers’ purchasing power, and revive the agricultural economy.

How it is significant:
The AAA is significant because it helped stabilize the agricultural sector, allowing farmers to survive economically during the Depression. It also represented a new level of federal involvement in the economy and set the stage for ongoing agricultural policy. However, the program often displaced tenant farmers and sharecroppers, highlighting social inequalities even within relief programs.

Dust Bowl

Who:
Primarily affected poor farmers and tenant farmers in the Great Plains, including Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico.

What:
The Dust Bowl was an environmental disaster during the 1930s characterized by severe drought, high winds, and massive dust storms that destroyed crops and farmland.

Where:
The Great Plains region of the United States.

When:
1930s, peaking around 1934–1936.

Why:
The disaster was caused by prolonged drought, poor farming practices (like over-plowing and lack of crop rotation), and high winds that stripped topsoil from the land. Economic pressures during the Great Depression also forced farmers to maximize production, worsening soil depletion.

How it is significant:
The Dust Bowl is significant because it intensified the economic and social impact of the Great Depression for farmers, causing mass migration (notably to California) and hardship. It prompted federal responses like soil conservation programs, the CCC, and the Soil Conservation Service, showing how government intervention could address environmental as well as economic crises. It also became a defining symbol of the intersection between environmental mismanagement and economic vulnerability.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

Who:
Created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt; employed millions of Americans, including construction workers, artists, writers, and teachers.

What:
The WPA was a New Deal program designed to provide jobs and income to unemployed Americans through public works projects, including building roads, bridges, schools, and parks. It also funded arts projects like murals, plays, and writing guides.

Where:
Across the United States, in urban and rural areas alike.

When:
1935–1943.

Why:
Unemployment remained extremely high during the Great Depression. The WPA aimed to reduce unemployment, stimulate the economy, and improve public infrastructure, while also supporting cultural projects and documenting American life.

How it is significant:
The WPA is significant because it provided immediate relief to millions of Americans while leaving a lasting impact on U.S. infrastructure and culture. It demonstrated the federal government’s expanded role in the economy and society, showing that public investment could address both economic hardship and social needs. Culturally, WPA projects preserved American stories, music, art, and history for future generations.

Social Security Act

Who:
Passed under President Franklin D. Roosevelt; primarily affected retirees, disabled individuals, unemployed workers, and widows/children.

What:
The Social Security Act of 1935 created a federal safety net providing retirement pensions, unemployment insurance, and aid to dependent children and the disabled.

Where:
United States, administered federally with state-level cooperation.

When:
1935.

Why:
The Great Depression revealed that millions of Americans were vulnerable to poverty due to unemployment, old age, or disability. The program was designed to provide financial security and prevent future economic hardship.

How it is significant:
The Social Security Act is significant because it established a permanent federal role in economic welfare and became the cornerstone of the modern U.S. social safety net. It transformed expectations about government responsibility, helping to stabilize the economy by ensuring a basic income for vulnerable populations and preventing extreme poverty.

Court Packing

Who:
Proposed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt; targeted the U.S. Supreme Court.

What:
“Court packing” was FDR’s 1937 proposal to expand the Supreme Court by adding up to six additional justices who would support New Deal legislation.

Where:
United States, at the federal judicial level.

When:
1937.

Why:
The Supreme Court had struck down key New Deal programs as unconstitutional. Roosevelt wanted to ensure his economic recovery policies could survive judicial challenges and continue to provide relief and reform.

How it is significant:
Court packing is significant because it highlighted tensions between the executive and judicial branches and the limits of presidential power. Although the plan was widely criticized and failed, the Court later upheld New Deal legislation, effectively allowing Roosevelt’s programs to continue. The controversy shaped debates about the balance of power in government and the independence of the judiciary.

Scottsboro Case

Who:
Nine African American teenagers, known as the “Scottsboro Boys,” were falsely accused of raping two white women in Scottsboro, Alabama. Defense lawyers included the Communist Party’s legal team and later national civil rights advocates.

What:
The Scottsboro Case was a series of trials marked by racial injustice, unfair legal procedures, and all-white juries, resulting in wrongful convictions and death sentences.

Where:
Scottsboro, Alabama, and various appeals in state and federal courts.

When:
1931–1937.

Why:
Racial prejudice, the Great Depression, and systemic injustice in the South created an environment in which Black defendants were denied fair trials and presumed guilty because of their race.

How it is significant:
The Scottsboro Case is significant because it exposed deep racial inequality in the U.S. legal system. It led to landmark Supreme Court rulings (Powell v. Alabama and Norris v. Alabama) establishing the right to adequate legal counsel and prohibition of racial discrimination in juries. The case became a symbol of the civil rights struggle and highlighted the need for legal and social reforms to protect minority rights.