Functionalism

What are the characteristics of functionalism?

• A structural consensus theory.

• Social institutions shape the behavior of individuals by passing on shared norms and values.

• This makes society harmonious by creating a value consensus.

What analogy do functionalists use to describe society?

The organic analogy

What is the organic analogy?

The idea that society functions like a biological organism.

Who identified the three similarities between society and a biological organism?

Parsons (1970)

What three similarities between society and a biological organ did Parsons (1970) identify?

• System

• System needs

• Functions

According to Parsons (1970), what is the system?

Both organisms and society are self-regulating systems comported of different parts that are connected.

According to Parsons, what are the system’s needs?

Both organs and institutions have needs that, if are not met, will not function.

According to Parsons, what are functions?

The function of different institutions and organs is to ensure that the system’s needs are met.

According to Parsons (1970), what is the aim of sociology?

To answer the question “how is social order possible?”

According to Parsons (1970), how does social order occur?

• Through a shared culture or central value system.

• This creates a framework that allows individuals to cooperate.

• Social order only occurs when people agree on these norms and values.

• This agreement is called value consensus.

What is a culture?

A set of norms, values, beliefs and goals shared by members of a society.

How does a value consensus ensure social order?

Value consensus integrates individuals into the social system by directing them towards meeting the system’s needs.

According to Parsons (1970), what are the two mechanisms that ensure people conform to society’s norms?

Socialisation and Social control.

What is socialisation?

When individuals learn to want to do what is required for the system’s needs to be met.

What helps the socialisation process?

Agencies of socialisation

What is social control?

When positive sanctions are given for conformity whilst individuals are punished for deviance.

How does the “building block” approach describe Parson’s (1970) model of society?

Individual actions > Norms > Status-roles > Institutions > Sub-systems > Social systems

Describe Parson’s (1970) model of society?

1. The actions of individuals are governed by norms.

2. These norms come in clusters known as status-roles.

3. Statuses are positions that exist in specific social systems. Roles are the set of norms that tells us how people who hold a particular status should behave.

4. Status-roles also come in clusters known as institutions.

5. Institutions that are related to one another are known as sub-systems.

6. These sub-systems come together to make up the social system as a whole.

What are the four basic needs of the system according to Parsons (1970)?

• Adaptation

• Goal attainment

• Integration

• Latency

What is adaptation?

When the social system meets its members material needs through the economic sub-system.

What is goal attainment?

The setting of goals in society and the provision of the resources needed to achieve these goals. This is the role of the political sub-system.

What is latency?

The processes that maintain society over time.

What are the two latent functions?

• Pattern maintenance

• Tension management

What is pattern maintenance?

The process by which individuals learn their roles in society for the future.

What is tension management?

The ability for individuals to release tension.

According to Parsons (1970), what are the instrumental system needs?

Adaptation and Goal attainment.

According to Parsons (1970), what are the expressive system needs?

Integration and Latency.

What are the two types of societies Parsons (1970) identified?

Traditional and Modern.

Who identified traditional and modern society as the two types of society?

Parsons (1970)

According to Parsons (1970) what are the characteristics of modern society?

• Individualism.

• Meritocracy and achieved statuses.

• Universalistic standards.

According to Parsons (1970) what are the characteristics of traditional society?

• Collectivism.

• Ascribed statuses.

• Particularistic standards.

How does Parsons (1970) believe the shift from traditional to modern society occur?

Gradually through increasing complexity and structural differentiation.

How does the idea of structural differentiation link the organic analogy?

Simple, unicellular organisms like amoebas have evolved into complex organisms like humans where different organisms have their own specific function. Society has also moved from simple to complex structures.

What is structural differentiation?

A gradual process in which separate, functionally specialised institutions develop, each meeting a different need.

What is dynamic equilibrium?

When change in one part of the system leads to change in other parts.

Which functionalist internally critiques Parsons (1970)?

Merton (1968)

What three key assumptions of Parsons does Merton (1968) criticise?

• Indispensability

• Functional unity

• Universal functionalism

How does Merton (1968) criticise indispensability?

• Parsons assumes that everything in society is indispensable in its existing form.

• Merton argues that there could be the possibility of functional alternatives.

How does Merton (1968) criticise functional unity?

• Parsons assumes that all parts of society are tightly integrated and perform functions that affect each other.

• Merton argues that some parts are only distantly related.

• He calls this functional autonomy.

How does Merton (1968) criticise universal functionalism?

• Parsons assumes that everything in society provides a positive function for everyone.

• Merton acknowledges that some groups may be functional for some and dysfunctional for others.

Who creates a distinction between manifest and latent functions?

Merton (1968)

What example did Merton (1968) use to distinguish between manifest and latent function?

• He uses the example of Native Americans who performed a rain-dance in times of drought.

• The dance itself was a manifest function with a specific intention.

• Whilst the ritual had the unintended latent function of producing a sense of solidarity during times of hardship.

What are the four types of external criticisms of functionalism?

1. Logical

2. Conflict perspective

3. Actions perspectives

4. Postmodernists

What is a logical criticism of functionalism?

• Functionalism is teleological.

  • This is when the existence of something is explained in terms of the purpose it serves rather than the reason it arrives.

• Functionalism is unscientific as it cannot be falsified.

How do conflict theorists critique functionalism? [6]

• Conflict theorists criticise functionalism for not being to explain conflict and change.

• This is because the organic analogy as an organism is stable and harmonious system.

• Marxists believe society is not harmonious and is based on the exploitation of the proletariat.

• Any stability is a result of the ruling class preventing any change through coercion.

• Conflict theorists see functionalism as a conservative ideology that legitimates the status quo.

• Ideas of universal functionalism and indispensability are used to justify current society.

Which action theorist criticises functionalism for being deterministic?

Wrong (1961)

How do action theorists criticise functionalism? [5]

• It’s too deterministic and views people as passive puppets.

• Functionalists see humans as being shaped by society whilst action theorists believe humans shape society.

• Action theorists also criticise functionalists for reifying society.

  • Action theorists don’t view society as a concrete thing.

  • Rather the only social reality is the one that individuals construct and give meaning to.

How do postmodernists critique functionalism?

• Postmodernists critique functionalism for assuming society is stable and orderly.

• They argue that they disregard the instability and diversity in today’s postmodern society.

• They see functionalism as a meta-narrative that tries to create a model of the workings of the entirety of society.

  • However, the fragmentation of today means that such a theory is not possible today.