social influence

What is social influence?

Social influence refers to the many ways people affect one another, leading to changes in attitudes or behavior as a result of others' comments, actions, or presence.

What is the continuum of social influence?

Social influence varies along an implicit-explicit continuum. Implicit influence involves unconscious changes (e.g., unconsciously copying a cool style), while explicit influence involves direct encouragement (e.g., being encouraged to get matching tattoos).

How is the power of social influence demonstrated within social networks?

Studies show that people within social networks significantly influence each other, such as one being 15% happier if a friend is happy, with this effect decreasing with degrees of separation.

What are the contributing factors to observed effects within social networks?

The observed effects of influence in social networks can be attributed to shared genes, homophily (the tendency to associate with similar people), and direct social influence itself, where certain behaviors are contagious.

Define conformity.

Conformity is the act of changing one's beliefs or behavior to align more closely with those of others, in response to real or imagined pressure.

What are the types of pressure that can lead to conformity?

The pressure to conform can be implicit (e.g., adopting current fashion trends) or explicit (e.g., being directly encouraged to vape).

Can conformity have positive or negative outcomes? Provide examples.

Yes, conformity can have both positive outcomes (e.g., volunteering for a good cause) and negative ones (e.g., engaging in destructive behaviors).

What is automatic mimicry?

Automatic mimicry is the most subtle and often unconscious form of conformity, involving the mindless imitation of other people's behavior and movements (e.g., posture, mannerisms, or expressions).

What are the two primary functions of automatic mimicry?

The two primary functions of automatic mimicry are perception-action overlap and facilitating social connection.

Explain the 'perception-action overlap' function of automatic mimicry.

The perception-action overlap function suggests that merely observing or thinking about a behavior increases the likelihood of performing it, because the brain regions involved in perception and action tend to overlap.

Explain how automatic mimicry facilitates social connection.

Mimicry helps foster smooth, gratifying interactions and stronger social bonds. People tend to like those who subtly imitate them, and being mimicked can encourage more prosocial behavior.

How does synchronous mimicry contribute to social connection?

Synchronous mimicry (e.g., yawning at the same time) creates powerful feelings of closeness and empathy between individuals.

Define informational social influence.

Informational social influence is the reliance on other people's comments and actions as indications of what is likely to be correct, proper, or effective in a given situation.

What is the primary motivation behind informational social influence?

The primary motivation behind informational social influence is the desire to be right.

In which situations is informational social influence most pronounced?

Informational social influence is most pronounced when an individual is uncertain about what is factually correct, or when they are in unfamiliar situations.

Describe Sherif's experiment as an example of informational social influence.

In Sherif's experiment, participants' estimates of light movement in the autokinetic illusion converged to a group norm, because individuals, uncertain about an objective reality, used others' judgments as a social frame of reference.

What was a key finding from Sherif's experiment regarding the persistence of conformity?

A key finding was that the group norms established in Sherif's experiment persisted even when participants were retested individually, demonstrating genuine private acceptance rather than mere public compliance.

Define normative social influence.

Normative social influence is driven by the desire to avoid being criticized, disapproved of, or shunned by others. It is conforming to gain acceptance or avoid rejection.

What is the primary motivation behind normative social influence?

The primary motivation behind normative social influence is the fear of social consequences (e.g., punishment from peers or embarrassing oneself) for departing from social norms.

In which situations does normative social influence primarily occur?

Normative social influence occurs even when an individual is certain of their own judgment but fears negative social repercussions from differing from the group.

Describe Asch's experiment as an example of normative social influence.

In Asch's experiment, participants conformed to an obviously wrong majority on a line-judgment task simply to avoid standing out negatively in the group, even though they privately knew the group's answer was incorrect.

What was a key finding from Asch's experiment regarding the nature of conformity?

Asch's experiment demonstrated that conformity due to normative social influence often leads to public compliance (changing behavior publicly) rather than private acceptance (changing one's own beliefs).

What are some key factors that influence an individual's tendency to conform?

Key factors include group size, group unanimity, anonymity, expertise and status, culture (independent vs. interdependent), and the tightness vs. looseness of culture.

How does group size affect conformity?

Conformity increases with group size, but typically only up to a unanimous majority of three or four individuals, after which the rate of conformity tends to level off.

Which influences contribute to the effect of group size on conformity?

Both informational and normative influences contribute to the effect of group size.

Why does the effect of group size on conformity tend to level off?

Informational benefits level off as additional individual opinions become less intrinsically unique, and the normative fear of embarrassment or standing out also plateaus beyond a certain group size.

How does group unanimity affect conformity?

The presence of just one ally who deviates from the majority opinion significantly reduces conformity.

Why does an ally reduce conformity, even if they're not right?

An ally weakens both informational pressure (affirming one's own judgment) and normative pressure (providing social support and making it easier to dissent), regardless of whether the ally's opinion is correct.

How does anonymity affect conformity?

Anonymity substantially reduces conformity by eliminating normative social influence, as there are no social consequences for one's private judgment.

What distinction does anonymity help reveal about conformity?

Anonymity helps distinguish between public compliance (conforming due to normative influence without internal belief change) and private acceptance/internalization (conforming due to informational influence, resulting in genuine belief change).

How do expertise and status influence conformity rates?

Experts promote conformity through informational influence (because they are perceived as more likely to be right), while high-status individuals promote conformity through normative influence (because they have more power to impact one's social standing).

How do interdependent cultures differ from independent cultures in susceptibility to social influence?

Interdependent cultures, which prioritize relationships and fitting in, are generally more susceptible to both informational and normative social influence compared to independent cultures, which value autonomy and uniqueness.

How do 'tight' cultures influence conformity?

'Tight' cultures have strong social norms and do not tolerate departure from these norms, leading to higher rates of conformity. This often arises due to ecological constraints like high population density.

How do 'loose' cultures influence conformity?

'Loose' cultures have weaker social norms and tolerate a greater degree of deviance, resulting in lower rates of conformity compared to tight cultures.

Can minority opinions influence majority opinions, and if so, how?

Yes, minorities can influence majorities, often through consistent and clear messages that compel the majority to systematically examine and reevaluate their opinions, as demonstrated in Moscovici's studies on color perception.

What is the primary mechanism through which minority influence operates?

Minority influence primarily relies on informational social influence, not normative social influence. The majority is not concerned about social costs from the minority.

How does informational social influence lead to majority change from minority opinions?

The persistent divergent opinion from the minority prompts the majority to engage in deeper scrutiny and systematic processing of the issue, which ultimately leads to changes in their underlying attitudes and beliefs.

What is the typical outcome of minority influence compared to majority influence?

While majority influence often results in public compliance (superficial change), minority influence tends to lead to a deeper, true private attitude change and internalization of beliefs.

Define compliance.

Compliance is a form of social influence where a person responds favorably to an explicit request from another person.

Who can make requests that lead to compliance?

Requests that lead to compliance can come from someone with formal power (e.g., a boss or supervisor) or from a peer (e.g., a classmate or colleague).

Describe the 'foot-in-the-door' technique.

The 'foot-in-the-door' technique involves making a small, initial request to which most people will comply, then following up with a larger request that is the actual goal.

What is the psychological mechanism behind the 'foot-in-the-door' technique?

Initial agreement to the small request changes the person's self-image to someone who does 'this kind of thing.' This makes them more likely to agree to subsequent, larger requests in order to maintain consistency with their new self-perception.

Provide an example of the 'foot-in-the-door' technique.

In a study, only 17% agreed to display a large, unattractive 'Drive Carefully' sign. However, 76% agreed to display the large sign when they were first asked to display a small 'Be a Safe Driver' sticker and then later asked to display the large sign.

What are norm-based approaches for eliciting compliance?

Norm-based approaches use the tendency for people to act like those around them, primarily by informing them about existing social norms, to achieve compliance.

When are norm-based approaches most effective for compliance?

Norm-based approaches are most effective when the information about the norm is surprising, such as when it corrects a misunderstanding like pluralistic ignorance.

Define pluralistic ignorance.

Pluralistic ignorance is a phenomenon where people act in ways that conflict with their private true beliefs because they mistakenly believe those beliefs are not widely shared by others.

How does pluralistic ignorance lead to conformity to non-existent norms?

This misperception of widespread beliefs can lead to widespread conformity to a perceived norm that doesn't truly exist (e.g., students overestimating peer comfort with drinking, leading to more drinking).

Provide a research example of a norm-based approach reducing alcohol consumption.

Informing students about accurate, lower-than-perceived peer drinking habits can effectively reduce excessive alcohol consumption by correcting pluralistic ignorance.

Provide a research example of a norm-based approach reducing bullying.

In one study, having designated students express opposition to bullying led to a reduction in disciplinary reports related to bullying incidents, demonstrating the power of shifting perceived social norms.

Define a static norm.

A static norm describes the current, unchanging state of a norm (e.g., 'Only 35% of men currently identify as feminists.').

Define a dynamic norm.

A dynamic norm highlights that a norm is changing or trending, indicating its trajectory (e.g., 'The number of men who consider themselves feminists is increasing; now over 35% of men consider themselves feminists.').

Why can dynamic norms be more effective than static norms in influencing behavior?

Dynamic norms can be more effective in influencing behavior because people are often influenced not just by the current norm but also by its perceived trajectory or future direction.

Define descriptive norms.

Descriptive norms describe what is typically done or what most people actually do in a given context (e.g., 'Most students at this university typically sleep less than 8 hours.').

Define prescriptive (injunctive) norms.

Prescriptive (injunctive) norms describe what one is supposed to do, what ought to be done, or what is socially approved (e.g., 'University administrators officially state that students should aim to get 8-9 hours of sleep.').

What is a key principle for using descriptive and prescriptive norms to increase compliance?

To maximize compliance, descriptive and prescriptive norms should ideally not be in conflict.

Why can highlighting how infrequently a prescriptive norm is followed be counterproductive?

Emphasizing how few people follow a prescriptive norm (e.g., 'Isn't it a shame how few people vote?') can be counterproductive because it inadvertently highlights a conflicting descriptive norm (many people don't vote), which can normalize the undesired behavior.

Provide an example from Petrified Forest National Park demonstrating the effective use of descriptive norms.

At Petrified Forest National Park, signs emphasizing that 'The vast majority of past visitors left the petrified wood in the park' (a descriptive norm aligned with desired behavior) resulted in a theft rate four times lower than signs highlighting 'Many past visitors removed petrified wood' (a descriptive norm conflicting with desired behavior).

What is the norm of reciprocity?

The norm of reciprocity is a fundamental social rule stating that people are expected to provide benefits to those who have given them benefits; essentially, we feel compelled to return favors.

How can the norm of reciprocity be leveraged for compliance?

By doing a favor for someone, you increase the likelihood that they will agree to a subsequent reasonable request from you, as failing to reciprocate violates a powerful social norm and risks negative social consequences.

Provide a research example illustrating the norm of reciprocity (Regan's study).

In Regan's study, participants who received an unsolicited soda from a confederate during a break were twice as likely to buy raffle tickets from that confederate later compared to those who did not receive the favor, demonstrating the power of reciprocity.

Describe the 'door-in-the-face' technique.

The 'door-in-the-face' technique (also known as reciprocal concessions) involves first making a large, unreasonable request that is certain to be refused, and then following up with a more moderate request, which is the actual goal.

What is the psychological mechanism behind the 'door-in-the-face' technique?

The drop in the size of the request is perceived as a concession from the requester. The person being asked then feels compelled to match this concession by complying with the second, smaller request, honoring the norm of reciprocity (specifically, reciprocal concessions).

Provide a research example of the 'door-in-the-face' technique (Cialdini's study).

Cialdini's study showed that college students, after refusing a large request to volunteer for a two-year counseling program, were three times more likely to agree to chaperone juvenile delinquents on a single zoo trip than if only the trip was initially requested.

How does a positive mood generally affect compliance?

A good or positive mood generally increases an individual's likelihood of complying with reasonable requests.

Why does a good mood increase compliance, related to interpretations?

When in a good mood, requests are often seen as less intrusive and threatening, and people are more inclined to give others the benefit of the doubt, making them more agreeable.

Why does a good mood increase compliance, related to mood maintenance?

People want to sustain their good mood, and complying with a request (or doing something kind for someone else) can prolong this positive feeling or help them avoid the potential guilt of refusing, thus contributing to mood maintenance.

What is a limitation of the effect of positive mood on compliance?

Compliance may not increase if the act of compliance itself would undermine the good mood (e.g., if the task is unpleasant or mood-dampening).

How do certain types of negative moods, specifically guilt, affect compliance?

Certain types of bad moods, particularly feelings of guilt, can also increase compliance with requests.

Describe the Negative State Relief Hypothesis.

The Negative State Relief Hypothesis suggests that people engage in actions to benefit someone else (especially good causes) as a way to make themselves feel better and alleviate an awful personal feeling (e.g., guilt), essentially helping others to help ourselves.

Provide a research example for the Negative State Relief Hypothesis.

Participants who witnessed a lab rat being jolted with electricity (inducing negative affect/guilt) subsequently donated more money to charity than those who did not witness the event, illustrating the Negative State Relief Hypothesis.

Define obedience.

Obedience is a form of social influence that occurs when a more powerful person or authority figure issues a demand, and a less powerful person voluntarily submits to that demand.

Describe the basic setup of Stanley Milgram's classic experiments on obedience.

In Milgram's experiments, participants ('teachers') were instructed by an experimenter to administer what they believed were increasingly intense electric shocks to a confederate ('learner') for incorrect answers, to study obedience to authority.

What were the instructions given to the 'teachers' in Milgram's experiment regarding administering shocks?

Participants ('teachers') were instructed by the experimenter to continue administering shocks, even when the 'learner' protested, cried out in pain, or eventually went silent, believing the shocks were real.

What was the key quantitative finding regarding obedience in Milgram's original study?

A surprising 62.5% of participants in Milgram's original study delivered the maximum shock of 450 \text{ volts}, despite the 'learner's' apparent suffering and their own extreme distress.

What did Burger's 2012 replication of Milgram's study conclude regarding obedience rates?

Burger's 2012 partial replication, stopping at 150 \text{ volts}, found similar rates of obedience (70% willing to continue) as Milgram's, suggesting that the human tendency to obey authority had not significantly changed in 50 years, with men and women showing comparable rates.

What were some key factors that made disobedience less likely in Milgram's experiments?

Key factors included ineffective disobedience, the participants' release from responsibility, and the step-by-step nature of their involvement.

Explain 'ineffective disobedience' as a factor contributing to obedience in Milgram's experiments.

Participants often attempted to disobey but did so hesitantly or without direct assertion, allowing the experimenter to insist they continue. They lacked a clear understanding of how to decisively stop, making their resistance ineffective.

How did 'release from responsibility' contribute to obedience in Milgram's experiments?

When the experimenter explicitly took full responsibility for the 'learner's' well-being, it significantly reduced participants' stress and served as a powerful justification for their actions, as they perceived the experimenter as a legitimate authority figure.

How did 'step-by-step involvement' contribute to obedience in Milgram's experiments?

The shock levels increased gradually in small increments (e.g., 15 \text{ volts}). Once participants administered a small shock, it became progressively harder to draw a line and stop at higher levels, creating behavioral momentum and a 'what's a little more going to hurt?' mentality.

What is Milgram's 'normalist' view regarding destructive obedience?

Milgram's 'normalist' view suggests that most ordinary people are capable of destructive obedience under the right situational circumstances and authority pressures, rather than only 'exceptionalist' or sadistic individuals.

Define reactance theory.

Reactance theory states that people experience an unpleasant state of arousal when they believe their free will or freedom of action is threatened. They then act to reduce this discomfort by reasserting their prerogatives.

What is the mechanism by which reactance theory operates?

Pressure to conform is often countered by a tendency to resist attempts to restrict one's freedom of action or thought. The more freedom is perceived as being taken away, the more precious it becomes, and the stronger the desire to maintain or restore it.

What is one effective way to resist social influence?

One effective way to resist social influence is through practice, by building a history of successfully resisting pressure, which can strengthen one's resolve and skills for future resistance.

How do awareness and understanding contribute to resisting social influence?

Understanding the psychological techniques and mechanisms of social influence (e.g., door-in-the-face, foot-in-the-door, normative pressure) can equip individuals to recognize and counter these attempts, thereby helping them maintain their autonomy and free will.